Historiography: Woman Suffrage and the Media

Abstract

Scholars began to study the periodicals and people who shaped the suffrage press in the early 1970s. Since 2000, suffrage media history has expanded to follow three main interdisciplinary strands that embrace a broad range of media, including film, literature, and cartoons: a trend toward cultural approaches; the retrieval of black women’s voices and a scourging of racism within the movement; and a celebration of suffrage in art and as spectacle. The field awaits an analysis of the symbiotic relationship between suffragists and mainstream media and a comprehensive look at suffrage print culture. American journalism historians might look to British cultural scholars for models that address how suffrage media drew women into the public sphere and changed them both.

Notes

1 Catherine Mitchell, “Historiography: A New Direction for Research on the Woman’s Rights Press,” Journalism History 19 (Summer 1993): 59–63. See also ibid., “Historiography on the Woman’s Rights Press,” ed. Frankie Hutton and Barbara Straus, Outsiders in 19th-Century Press History: Multicultural Perspectives (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1995), 159–68.

2 Elizabeth V. Burt, “Journalism of the Suffrage Movement: 25 Years of Recent Scholarship,” American Journalism 17 no. 1 (2000): 73–85.

3 James W. Carey, “The Problem of Journalism History,” Journalism History 1 (1974): 3–5, 27.

4 Kathi Kern, “Productive Collaborations: The Benefits of Cultural Analysis to the Past, Present, and Future of Women’s History,” Journal of Women’s History 16, no. 4 (2004): 34–40.

5 See Gerda Lerner, “Placing Women in History: Definitions and Challenges,” Feminist Studies 3 (Autumn 1975): 5–14.

6 Lynne Masel-Walters, “Their Rights and Nothing More: A History of the Revolution, 1868–1870,” Journalism Quarterly 53 (Summer 1976): 242–51; and Lynne Masel-Walters, “A Burning Cloud by Day: The History and Content of the Woman’s Journal,” Journalism History 3 (Winter 1976–1977): 103–10. See also Part II in Lee Jolliffe, “Women’s Magazines in the 19th Century,” Journal of Popular Culture 27, no. 4 (1994), 125–40; and Rodger Streitmatter, “Setting a Revolutionary Agenda for Women’s Rights,” ed. Rodger Streitmatter, Voices of Revolution: The Dissident Press in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), 36–53.

7 See Marion Marzolf, “The Feminist Press Then and Now,” in Up from the Footnote: A History of Women Journalists (New York: Hastings House, 1977), 219–47.

8 Sherilyn Cox Bennion, “Woman Suffrage Papers of the West, 1869–1914,” American Journalism 3 (1986): 125–139; Sherilyn Cox Bennion, “The New Northwest and Woman’s Exponent: Early Voices for Suffrage,” Journalism Quarterly 54 (1977): 286–92; Sherilyn Cox Bennion, “The Pioneer: The First Voice of Women’s Suffrage in the West,” Pacific Historian 25 (1981); 15–21; and Sherilyn Cox Bennion, “The Woman Exponent: Forty-two Years of Speaking for Woman Suffrage,” Utah Historical Quarterly AA (1976): 222–30. See also Sherilyn Cox Bennion, “The Woman Suffrage Press of the West,” in Outsiders in 19th-Century Press History. She discusses several suffrage editors in Sherilyn Cox Bennion, Equal to the Occasion: Women Editors of the Nineteenth-century West (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1990). See also Marilyn Dell Brady, “Populism and Feminism in a Newspaper by and for Women of the Kansas Farmers’ Alliance, 1891–1894,” Kansas History 7 (Winter 1984–85): 280–90.

9 D. M. Mansfield, “Abigail S. Duniway: Suffragette with Not-so-common Sense,” Western Journal of Speech Communication 35 (1971), 24–29. See also Lauren Kessler, “A Siege of the Citadels,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 84 (Summer 1983): 117–49; Tiffany Lewis, “Winning Woman Suffrage in the Masculine West: Abigail Scott Duniway’s Frontier Myth,” Western Journal of Communication 75, no. 2 (2000): 127–147; Ruth Barnes Moynihan, Rebel for Rights: Abigail Scott Duniway (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983); and “Introduction,” ed. Jean M. Ward and Elaine A. Maveety, Yours for Liberty: Selections from Abigail Scott Duniway’s Suffrage Newspaper (Eugene: Oregon State University Press, 2000), 1–38.

10 Lynne Masel-Walters, “To Hustle with the Rowdies: The Organization and Functions of the American Woman Suffrage Press,” Journal of American Culture 3 (Spring 1980): 167–83.

11 Elizabeth V. Burt, “Dissent and Control in a Woman Suffrage Periodical: Thirty Years of the Wisconsin Citizen,” American Journalism 16, no. 2 (1999) 39–62.

12 Kathleen L. Endres and Therese L. Lueck, eds., Women’s Periodicals in the United States: Social and Political Issues (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1996).

13 Linda Lumsden, “Suffragist: The Making of a Militant,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 72 (1995): 525–38.

14 Lauren Kessler, “The Ideas of Woman Suffragists and the Portland Oregonian,” Journalism Quarterly 57, no. 4 (1980): 597–605. Ronald Schaffer alludes to California suffragists’ cognizance of appealing to the mainstream press in “The Problem of Consciousness in the Woman Suffrage Movement: A California Perspective,” Pacific Historical Review 45 (1976): 469–93. See also Lauren Kessler, “The Ideas of Woman Suffrage and the Mainstream Press,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 84 (Fall 1983): 257–75.

15 Rodger Streitmatter, “Slowing the Momentum for Women’s Rights,” ed. Rodger Streitmatter, Mightier Than the Sword: How the News Media Have Shaped American History (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997), 30–44.

16 Anne Messerly Cooper, “Suffrage as News: Ten Dailies’ Coverage of the Nineteenth Amendment,” American Journalism 1 (Summer 1983): 75–92.

17 Janet M. Cramer, “Woman as Citizen: Race, Class, and the Discourse of Women’s Citizenship, 1894–1909,” Journalism and Mass Communication Monographs 165 (March 1998): 1–39.

18 Nancy Burkhalter, “Women’s Magazines and the Suffrage Movement: Did They Help or Hinder the Cause?” Journal of American Culture 19, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 13–24.

19 Elizabeth V. Burt, “The Wisconsin Press and Woman Suffrage, 1911–1919: An Analysis of Factors Affecting Coverage by Ten Diverse Papers,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73, no. 3 (1996): 620–34; and Elizabeth V. Burt, “Conflicts of Interest: Covering Reform in the Wisconsin Press, 1910–1920,” Journalism History 26 (2000): 94–107.

20 Sidney Bland, “Shaping the Life of the New Woman: The Crusading Years of the Delineator,” American Periodicals 19, no. 2 (2009): 165–88.

21 Linda J. Lumsden, “Beauty and the Beasts: Significance of Newspaper Coverage of the 1913 National Suffrage Parade,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 77 (2000): 593–611. See also Katharine H. Adams and Michael L. Keene, “Parades and Other Events: Escalating the Nonviolent Pressure,” ed. Katharine H. Adams and Michael L. Keene, Alice Paul and the American Suffrage Campaign (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2008), 76–117; Lucy G. Barber, Marching on Washington: The Forging of an American Political Tradition (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2004), 1–353; Jennifer L. Borda, “The Woman Suffrage Parades of 1910–1913: Possibilities and Limitations of an Early Feminist Rhetorical Strategy,” Western Journal of Communication 66, no. 1 (2002): 25–52; Sarah J. Moore, “Making a Spectacle of Suffrage: The National Woman Suffrage Pageant, 1913,” Journal of American Culture 20 (Spring 1997): 89–103; Belinda A. Stillion Southard, Militant Citizenship: Rhetorical Strategies of the National Woman’s Party, 1913–1920 (College Station: Texas A&M, 2011); and Jim Stovall, Seeing Suffrage: The Washington Suffrage Parade of 1913, Its Pictures and Its Effects on the American Landscape (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2013).

22 Teri Finneman, “‘The Greatest of Its Kind Ever Witnessed in America’”: The Press and the 1913 Women’s March on Washington,” Journalism History 44, no. 2 (Summer 2018): 109–16. See also Rebecca Boggs Roberts, Suffragists in Washington, DC: The 1913 Parade and the Fight for the Vote (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2017).

23 See Elna C. Green, Southern Strategies: Southern Women and the Woman Suffrage Question (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), which lists 19 newspapers and journals in its bibliography.

24 Sally G. McMillen, Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women’s Rights Movement (London: Oxford University Press, 2008), 97–100, 133–35, 170–72, 181, 208, 210, 224.

25 Linda J. Lumsden, Rampant Women: Suffragists and the Right of Assembly (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997), 10–11, 76–83, and 123–27. See also Linda J. Lumsden, INEZ: The Life and Times of Inez Milholland (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 40–42.

26 Splintered Sisterhood: Gender and Class in the Campaign against Woman Suffrage (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997). See also Susan E. Marshall, “Ladies against Women: Mobilization Dilemmas of the Antifeminist Movement,” Social Problems 32 (April 1985): 348–62; Louise Stevenson, “Women Anti-Suffragists in the 1915 Massachusetts Campaign,” New England Quarterly 52 (March 1979): 80–93.

27 Brooke Kroeger, The Suffragents: How Women Used Men to Get the Vote (Excelsior Editions, 2017), 81, 90–91, 124–26, 150, 162, 165, 172. See also Brooke Kroeger, “When the Suffrage Movement Got Its Makeover On,” Gotham: A Blog for Scholars of New York City, November 21, 2017. https://www.gothamcenter.org/blog/when-the-suffrage-movement-got-its-makeover-on.

28 Johanna Neuman, Gilded Suffragists: The New York Socialites Who Fought for Women’s Right to Vote (New York: New York University Press, 2017).

29 Joan Marie Johnson, Funding Feminism: Monied Women, Philanthropy, and the Women’s Movement, 1870–1967 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 76. When magazine publisher Frank Leslie died, his widow changed her name to Frank Leslie and inherited his business. Joan Marie Johnson, “New Yorker Mrs. Frank Leslie’s Million Dollar Gift to Women’s Suffrage,” Gotham: A Blog for Scholars of New York City, November 14, 2017. https://www.gothamcenter.org/blog/new-yorker-mrs-frank-leslies-million-dollar-gift-to-womens-suffrage.

30 Genevieve McBride, On Wisconsin Women: Working for Their Rights from Settlement to Suffrage (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993).

31 Linda Steiner, “Finding Community in 19th-Century Suffrage Periodicals,” American Journalism 1 (Summer 1983): 1–15. She expanded on this article in Linda Steiner, “Evolving Rhetorical Strategies/Evolving Identities,” ed. Martha Solomon, A Voice of Their Own: The Woman Suffrage Press: 1840–1910 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991), 183–97.

32 Linda Steiner, “19th Century Suffrage Periodicals: Conceptions of Womanhood and the Press,” ed. William Solomon and Robert McChesney, Ruthless Criticism: New Perspectives in US Communication History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 66–97. She looks at the Lily (1849–1856); the Una (1853–1855); Revolution (1868–1870); the Woman’s Journal (1870–1931); the New Northwest (1871–1887); the National Citizen and Ballot Box (1876–1881); and the Woman’s Tribune (1883–1909).

33 Solomon discusses the rhetoric of the Lily, the Revolution, the Woman’s Journal, the Una, the Woman’s Tribune, the Woman’s Column, the Farmer’s Wife, and the Woman’s Exponent. See also Martha Solomon, “Autobiographies as Rhetorical Narratives: Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Anna Howard Shaw as ‘New Woman,’” Communication Studies 42 (1991): 83–92.

34 Ann Russo and Cheris Kramarae, eds. The Radical Women’s Press of the 1850s (New York: Routledge, 1991). See Barbara Welter, “The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820–1860,” American Quarterly 18 (Summer 1966): 151–74.

35 Lana F. Rakow and Cheris Kramarae, eds., The Revolution in Words: Righting Women 1868–1871 (New York: Routledge, 1990).

36 Maurine H. Beasley, “Suffrage Newspapers,” ed. Maurine H. Beasley and Sheila J. Gibbons, Taking Their Place: A Documentary History of Women and Journalism (Washington, DC: American University Press, 1993), 38–44.

37 Lee Joliffe, “Women’s Magazines in the 19th Century,” Journal of Popular Culture 27 (Spring 1994): 125–40.

38 Linda J. Lumsden, “‘Excellent Ammunition’: Suffrage Newspaper Strategies during World War I,” Journalism History 25 (Summer 1999): 53–63.

39 Manuela Thurner, “‘Better Citizens without the Ballot’: American Anti-Suffrage Women and Their Rationale during the Progressive Era,” Journal of Women’s History 5 (Spring 1993): 33–60. Reprinted in Marjorie Spruill Wheeer, One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage Movement (Troutdale, OR: NewSage Press, 1995): 203–20.

40 Elizabeth V. Burt, “The Ideology, Rhetoric, and Organizational Structure of a Countermovement Publication: The Remonstrance, 1890–1920,” Journalism Quarterly 75 (Spring 1998): 69–83.

41 Mary M. Carver, “Everyday Women Find Their Voice in the Public Sphere: Consciousness Raising in Letters to the Editor of the Woman’s Journal,” Journalism History 34 (Spring 2008): 15–22.

42 Todd H. Richardson, “From Syphilitic to Suffragist: The Woman’s Journal and the Negotiation of Walt Whitman’s Celebrity,” Walt Whitman Quarterly Review 28 (2010): 36–53.

43 Amber Roessner, “‘The Great Wrong’: ‘Jennie June’s’ Stance on Women’s Rights,” Journalism History 38 (Fall 2012): 178–88.

44 Maurine H. Beasley, Ch. 2, “A New Generation,” in Maurine H. Beasley, Women of the Washington Press: Politics, Prejudice, and Persistence (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2012), 25–56.

45 Sheila M. Webb, “The Woman Citizen: A Study of How News Narratives Adapt to a Changing Social Environment.” American Journalism 29, no. 2 (Spring 2012): 9–36.

46 Donna Harrington-Lueker, “Finding a Market for Suffrage,” Journalism History 33 (2007): 130–39.

47 A. Cheree Carlson, “Defining Womanhood: Lucretia Coffin Mott and the Transformation of Femininity,” Western Journal of Communication 58 (1994): 85–97.

48 Mary Chapman, “‘Are Women People?’: Alice Duer Miller’s Politics and Poetry,” American Literary History 18, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 59–85.

49 Jennifer A. Thompson, “From Travel Writer to Newspaper Editor: Caroline Churchill and the Development of Her Political Ideology within the Public Sphere,” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 20, no. 3 (1999): 42–63. See also Patricia Grimshaw and Katherine Ellinghaus, “‘A Higher Step for the Race’: Caroline Nichols Churchill, The Queen Bee and Women’s Suffrage in Colorado, 1879–1893,” Australasian Journal of American Studies 20, no. 2 (2001): 29–46.

50 “‘We Are the Women of Utah’: The Utah Woman’s Press Club’s Framing Strategies in the Woman’s Exponent,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 95 (Spring 2018): 213–34.

51 Barbara A. Bardes and Suzanne Gossett, Declarations of Independence: Women and Political Power in Nineteenth-century American Fiction (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990).

52 Ann L. Ardis, New Women, New Novels: Feminism and Early Modernism (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990).

53 Victoria Olwell, “Typewriters and the Vote.” SIGNS Journal of Women in Culture & Society 29 (2003): 55.

54 Leslie Petty, Romancing the Vote: Feminist Activism in American Fiction, 1870–1920 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006).

55 Jean Marie Lutes, “Beyond the Bounds of the Book: Periodical Studies and Women Writers of the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” Legacy 2 (2010): 336–56.

56 Mary Chapman and Angela Mills, eds., Treacherous Texts: US Suffrage Literature, 1846–1946 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2011).

57 See Julie Des Jardins, “Remembering Organized Feminism,” ed. Julie Des Jardins, Women and the Historical Enterprise in America: Gender, Race and the Politics of Memory, 1880–1970 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 177–213.

58 Lisa Tetrault. The Myth of Seneca Falls: Memory and the Women’s Suffrage Movement, 1848–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 115. Editors of The History of Woman Suffrage changed as the originals died: Ida Usted Harper replaced Gage as co-editor for Volume IV of the History; Stanton and Harper edited Volume V, and Harper was sole editor of Volume VI. See also Lisa Tetrault, “We Shall Be Remembered: Susan B. Anthony and the Politics of Writing History,” ed. Christine L. Ridarsky and Mary M. Huth, Susan B. Anthony and the Struggle for Equal Rights (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2012), 15–58.

59 See also Grace Farrell, “Beneath the Suffrage Narrative,” Canadian Review of American Studies 36, no. 1 (2006): 45–65; and Leila R. Brammer, Excluded from Suffrage History: Matilda Joslyn Gage, Nineteenth Century American Feminist (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000).

60 Tetrault, Myth, 135.

61 Jen McDaneld, “White Suffragist Dis/Entitlement: The Revolution and the Rhetoric of Racism,” Legacy: A Journal of American Women Writers 30, no. 2 (2013): 243–64.

62 Louise Michelle Newman, Chapter 2, “The Making of a White Female Citizenry: Suffragism, Antisuffragism, and Race,” ed. Louise Michelle Newman, White Women’s Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 56–85.

63 Teresa Zackodnik, “‘I Don’t Know How You Will Feel When I Get Through:’ Racial Difference, Symbolic Value, and Sojourner Truth,” ed. Teresa Zackodnik, Press, Platform, Pulpit: Black Feminist Publics in the Era of Reform (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2011), 93–126. See also Teresa Zackodnik, ed., “We Must Be Up and Doing”: A Reader in Early African American Feminisms (Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 2010).

64 “Conclusion: Feminist Affiliations in a Divisive Climate: Anna Julia Cooper’s ‘Woman versus the Indian,’” in Press, Platform, Pulpit, 225–248.

65 See Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (New York: Harper Collins, 1990); and Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics,” University of Chicago Legal Forum 1 (1989): 139–67. https://philpapers.org/archive/CREDTI.pdf?ncid=txtlnkusaolp00000603. For foundational accounts of black women suffragists, see Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); and Ann Dexter Gordon with Bettye Collier-Thomas, eds. African American Women and the Vote, 1837–1965 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997).

66 Frances Harper, author, and Frances Smith Foster, ed. Minnie’s Sacrifice, Sowing and Reaping, Trial and Triumph: Three Rediscovered Novels (Boston: Beacon Press, 1994). See also Frances Smith Foster, “Gender, Genre, and Vulgar Secularism: The Case of Frances Ellen Watkins Harper and the AME Press,” ed. Dolan Hubbard, Recovered Writers/Recovered Texts: Race, Class, and Gender in Black Women’s Literature (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press), 46–59; and Bettye Collier-Thomas, “F. E. W. Harper: Abolitionist and Feminist Reformer 1825–1911,” Gordon and Collier-Thomas, African American Women and the Vote, 41–65.

67 Nell Irvin Painter, “Difference, Slavery, and Memory: Sojourner Truth in Feminist Abolitionism,” eds. Jean Fagan Yellin and John C. Van Horne, The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women’s Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 139–58.

68 Nell Irvin Painter, “Voices of Suffrage: Sojourner Truth, Frances Watkins Harper, and the Struggle for Woman Suffrage,” in Votes for Women, ed. Jean H. Baker (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 51.

69 Alison Parker, “Frances Watkins Harper and the Search for Women’s Interracial Alliances,” Susan B. Anthony and the Struggle for Equal Rights (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2012), 145–71.

70 Jane Rhodes, Mary Ann Shadd Cary: The Black Press and Protest in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999). See also Jim Bearden and Linda Jean Butler, The Life and Times of Mary Ann Shadd Cary (Toronto: NC Press, 1977); Jane Rhodes, “Race, Money, Politics and the Antebellum Black Press,” Journalism History 20, no. 3 (1994): 21–43; and Rodger Streitmatter, “Mary Ann Shadd Cary: Advocate for Canadian Emigration,” ed. Rodger Streitmatter, Raising Her Voice: African-American Women Journalists Who Changed History (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994), 25–36.

71 Rodger Streitmatter, “Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin: Pioneering African American Newspaper Publisher,” ed. Susan Albertine, A Living of Words: American Women in Print Culture (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1995), 49–64; and Rodger Streitmatter, “Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin: Driving Force in the Women’s Club Movement,” ed. Rodger Stretimatter, Raising Her Voice: African-American Women Journalists Who Changed History, 61–72.

72 Jinx C. Broussard, “Mary Church Terrell: A Black Woman Journalist and Activist Seeks to Elevate Her Race,” American Journalism 19, no. 4 (2002): 13–35.

73 Kristin M. Bloomberg, “Cultural Critique and Consciousness Raising: Clara Bewick Colby’s Woman’s Tribune and Late Nineteenth-century Radical Feminism,” in Women in Print: Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, eds. James P. Danky and Wayne Wiegand (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), 54, 55. See also C. S. Lomicky, “Frontier Feminism and the Woman’s Tribune: The Journalism of Clara Bewick Colby,” Journalism History 28, no. 3 (2002): 102–11.

74 Gail H. Landsman, “The ‘Other’ as Political Symbol: Images of Indians in the Woman Suffrage Movement,” Ethnohistory 39, no. 3 (Summer 1992): 247–84.

75 Benjamin Quarles, “Frederick Douglass and the Woman’s Rights Movement,” Journal of Negro History 25, no. 1 (1940): 43, 41n28. S. Jay Walker addresses but does not dwell on the suffragists’ racist reaction to the Fifteenth Amendment in S. Jay Walker, “Frederick Douglass and Woman Suffrage,” Black Scholar 4, nos. 6–7 (1973): 24–31. Reprinted in the Black Scholar 14, no. 5 (1983): 18–25. Philip Foner also edited a collection of Douglass’s speeches and writings on women’s rights. Philip Foner, ed., Frederick Douglass on Women’s Rights (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1976).

76 Jean Fagan Yellin, “Dubois’ ‘Crisis’ and Woman’s Suffrage.” Massachusetts Review 14, no. 2 (1973): 365.

77 Garth E. Pauley, “W. E. B. Du Bois on Woman Suffrage: A Critical Analysis of His Crisis Writings,” Journal of Black Studies 30 (January 2000): 383–410.

78 Gary L. Lemons, Womanist Forefathers Frederick Douglass and W. E. B. Du Bois (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2009).

79 Valethia Watkins, “Votes for Women: Race, Gender, and W. E. B. Du Bois’s Advocacy of Woman Suffrage,” Phylon 53 (Winter 2016): 3–19.

80 Lisa Tickner, The Spectacle of Women: Imagery of the Suffrage Campaign 1907–14 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

81 Perry, “Introduction,” 12.

82 Adams and Keene, “Parades and Other Events,” 76–116; and “Reaching the Group through Words and Pictures,” ibid., 42–75.

83 Katharina Hundhammer, American Women in Cartoons 1890–1920: Female Representation and the Changing Concepts of Femininity during the American Woman Suffrage Movement: An Empirical Analysis (Pieterlen, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 2012).

84 Catherine H. Palczewski, “The Male Madonna and the Feminine Uncle Sam: Visual Argument, Icons, and Ideographs in 1909 Anti-Woman Suffrage Postcards,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 91, no. 4 (2005): 365–94.

85 Jaqueline McLeod Rogers, “Geopolitics in the Anti-Suffrage Cartoons of American John Tinney McCutcheon and Canadian Newton McConnell: Stopping Trans-Atlantic Flow,” Peitho: Journal of the Coalition of Feminist Scholars in the History of Rhetoric & Composition 17 (2014): 31–45.

86 Carolyn Kitch, The Girl on the Magazine Cover: The Origins of Visual Stereotypes in American Mass Media (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). See also Carolyn Kitch, “Destructive Women and Little Men: Masculinity, the New Woman, and Power in 1910s Popular Media,” Journal of Magazine & New Media Research 1 (Spring 1999).

87 E. Michele Ramsey, “Inventing Citizens during World War I: Suffrage Cartoons in the Woman Citizen,” Western Journal of Communication 64 (Spring 2000): 113–47.

88 Rachel Schreiber, “She Will Spike War’s Gun: Suffrage, Citizenship and War,” ed. Rachel Schreiber, Gender and Activism in a Little Magazine: The Modern Figures of The Masses (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011), 124–58. See also Rachel Schreiber, “‘She Will Spike War’s Gun’: The Anti-War Graphic Satire of the American Suffrage Press,” ed. Rachel Schreiber, Modern Print Activism in the United States (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2013), 43–64.

89 Margaret Mary Finnegan, Selling Suffrage: Consumer Culture & Votes for Women (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).

90 Laura L. Behling, “‘The Woman at the Wheel’: Marketing Ideal Womanhood, 1915–1934.” Journal of American Culture 20, no. 3 (1997): 13.

91 Kenneth Florey, American Woman Suffrage Postcards: A Study and Catalog (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2012); and Kenneth Florey, Women’s Suffrage Memorabilia: An Illustrated Historical Study (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2013).

92 Christina Elizabeth Dando, “‘The Map Proves It’: Map Use by the American Woman Suffrage Movement,” Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization 45, no. 4 (2010): 221–40.

93 Katherine Feo Kelly, “Performing Prison: Dress, Modernity, and the Radical Suffrage Body,” Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture 15, no. 3 (2011): 299–321.

94 Karen J. Blair, “Pageantry for Women’s Rights: The Career of Hazel MacKaye, 1913–1923,” Theatre Survey: The Journal of the American Society for Theatre Research 31, no. 1 (1990): 23–46.

95 Angela V. John, Elizabeth Robins: Staging a Life, 1862–1952 (New York: Routledge, 1995).

96 Susanne Aitsch, Staging Separate Spheres: Theatrical Spaces as Sites of Antagonism in One-act Plays by American Women, 1910–1930 (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2006).

97 Susan A. Glenn, Female Spectacle: The Theatrical Roots of Modern Feminism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000).

98 Gretchen Bataille, “Preliminary Investigations: Early Suffrage Films,” Women and Film 1 (1973): 42–44.

99 Kay Sloan, “Sexual Warfare in the Silent Cinema: Comedies and Melodramas of Woman Suffragism,” American Quarterly 33, no. 4 (1981): 412–36. Sloan also produced a thirty-five-minute documentary, which includes footage from films including A Lively Affair (1912); A Busy Day (1914), originally titled The Militant Suffragette, in which Charlie Chaplin portrays a woman suffragist; and the pro-suffrage film, What 80 Million Women Want (1913). “Suffragettes in the Silent Cinema,” Women Make Movies, 2003.

100 Amy Shore, Suffrage and the Silver Screen (New York: Peter Lang, 2014). See also Amy Shore, “Suffrage Stars,” Camera Obscura: Feminism, Culture, and Media Studies 21, no. 3 (2006): 1–35.

101 “One Woman, One Vote,” Boston: Educational Film Center/WGBH, 1995; and “Not for Ourselves Alone: The Story of Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton,” PBS, 1994.

102 “California Women Win the Vote,” Martha Wheelock, 2011; “Forward into Light,” National Women’s History Project and Wild West Women, Inc., 2016; “Votes for Women,” Kay Weaver and Martha Wheelock, Wild West Women, Inc., 1996.

103 “The Perfect 36: When Women Won the Vote,” Pretzel Pictures, 2017.

104 Krista Cowman, “The Militant Suffrage Campaign on Screen,” ed. Alexa Robertson, Screening Protest: Visual Narratives of Dissent across Time, Space and Genre (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2019), 209–229.

105 Kristy Maddux, “Winning the Right to Vote in 2004,” Feminist Media Studies 9, no. 1 (2009): 73–94.

106 Suzanne Bouclin, “Women’s Suffrage: A Cinematic Study,” Revue LISA/LISA e-journal [XII-no. 7 | 2014. https://journals.openedition.org/lisa/6918.

107 Jill Lepore, The Secret History of Wonder Woman (New York: Knopf, 2014).

108 Adrienne LaFrance, “The Weird Familiarity of 100-Year-Old Feminism Memes,” The Atlantic, October 26, 2016. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/10/pepe-the-anti-suffrage-frog/505406/.

109 Maria DiCenzo, Lucy Delap, and Leila Ryan, Feminist Media History: Suffrage, Periodicals and the Public Sphere (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). The trio had earlier collected classic articles from key journals in the three-volume sourcebook; they edited Feminism and the Periodical Press, 1900–1918 (London: Routledge: 2006).

110 Maria DiCenzo, “Gutter Politics: Women Newsies and the Suffrage Press,” Women’s History Review 12, no. 1 (2003): 16. See also Maria DiCenzo, “Militant Distribution: Votes for Women and the Public Sphere,” Media History 6, no. 2 (2000): 115–28; Maria DiCenzo, “Feminism, Theatre Criticism, and the Modern Drama,” South Central Review 25, no. 1 (2008): 36–55; and Maria DiCenzo, “Pressing the Public: Nineteenth-century Feminist Periodicals and ‘the Press,’” Nineteenth Century Gender Studies 6 (Summer 2010). http://www.ncgsjournal.com/issue62/dicenzo.htm.

111 Victoria Bazin and Melanie Waters, “Mediated and Mediating Feminisms: Periodical Culture from Suffrage to the Second Wave,” Women: A Cultural Review 27, no. 4 (2016): 347–58.  See also Simone Murray, “Deeds and Words: The Woman’s Press and the Politics of Print,” Women: A Cultural Review 11, no. 3 (2000): 197–222.

112 Barbara Green, “The Feel of the Feminist Network: Votes for Women after The Suffragette,” Women: A Cultural Review, 27, no. 4 (2016): 359–77. See also Barbara Green, Spectacular Confessions: Autobiography, Performative Activism, and the Sites of Suffrage (New York: St. Martins and Palgrave Macmillan, 1997); Barbara Green, “Feminist Things,” ed. Ann Ardis and Patrick Collier, Transatlantic Print Culture, 1880–1940: Emerging Media, Emerging Modernisms (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 66–79; and Barbara Green, “Advertising Feminism: Ornamental Bodies/Docile Bodies and the Discourse of Suffrage,” ed. Kevin J. H. Dettmar and Stephen Watt, Marketing Modernism: Self-Promotion, Canonization, Rereading (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 191–220; and Barbara Green, “Introduction to The Freewoman,” Brown Modernist Journals Project, n.d. www.dl.lib.brown.edu/mjp/render.php?id=mjp.2005.00.111&;view=mjp_object.

113 John Mercer, “Making the News: Votes for Women and the Mainstream Press,” Media History 10 (December 2004), 187–99.

114 “Seeing through Spectacles: The Woman Suffrage Movement and London Newspapers, 1906–13,” European Journal of Women’s Studies 11 (August 2004): 327–53.

115 Miranda Garrett and Zoë Thomas, eds., Suffrage and the Arts: Visual Culture, Politics, and Enterprise (New York: Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2018).

116 Ian McDonald, Vindication! A Postcard History of the Women’s Movement (London: McDonald/Bellow, 1989); Sheila Stowell, A Stage of Their Own: Feminist Playwrights of the Suffrage Era (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992); and Irene Cockroft and Susan Croft, Art, Theatre, and Women’s Suffrage (London: Aurora Metro, 2010). See also Katherine Cockin, Women and Theatre in the Age of Suffrage: The Pioneer Suffrage Players, 1911–1925 (Houndmills, UK: Palgrave, 2001); Naomi Paxton, “Introduction,” ed. Naomi Paxton, The Methuen Drama Book of Suffrage Plays: Taking the Stage (Slingsby, UK: Methuen Drama, 2018); and Madelaine Bernstorff, “From the Past to the Future: Suffragettes—Extremist of Visibility in Berlin,” ed. Martin Loiperdinger, Early Cinema Today: The Art of Programming and Live Performance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2012), 43–51.

117 Carol Barash, “Dora Marsden’s Feminism, the Freewoman, and the Gender Politics of Early Modernism,” Princeton University Library Chronicle 49, no. 1 (1987): 31–56.

118 Mary Chapman, Making Noise, Making News: Suffrage Print Culture and US Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

119 Barbara Green, “Feminist Periodical Culture,” Literature Compass 6, no. 1 (2009): 191–205; Barbara Green, “Complaints of Everyday Life: Feminist Periodical Culture and Correspondence Columns in the Woman Worker and the Freewoman,” Modernism/modernity 19 (September 2012): 461–85; and Barbara Green, “Mediating Women: Evelyn Sharp and the Modern Media Fictions of Suffrage,” ed. Holly Laird, The History of British Women’s Writing, 1880–1920 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).

120 Chapman, Making Noise, 12.

121 Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle: The Woman’s Rights Movement in the United States, enlarged ed. (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1996, 1st ed. 1959), 338.

122 Ellen Gruber Garvey, “Strategic Scrapbooks: Activist Women’s Clipping and Self-creation,” ed. Ellen Gruber Garvey, Writing with Scissors: Scrapbooks from the Civil War to the Harlem Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 173.

123 Barbara Green, Feminist Periodicals and Daily Life: Women and Modernity in British Culture (Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2017).

124 Sara Egge, “Strewn Knee Deep in Literature: A Material Analysis of Print Propaganda and Woman Suffrage,” Agricultural History 88, no. 4 (Fall 2014): 591–605.