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Abstract
I examine the role of food, eating, and meals in the life of St. Francis of Assisi. I observe that his experience significantly differs from that of the female fasting saints. I show that his concern lies with the justifiability of eating, and that food is associated with dramatic lessons that instruct or chastise others. I argue that, like Christ, Francis uses food and eating to teach, to share a message, or to accept outsiders.
Notes
Notes
1 Numerous studies followed, but a complete bibliography is far too extensive to list. In addition to the studies of Bell and Bynum, see Mazzoni.
2 Some may argue that it is impossible to separate the historical Francis from the stories written about him and his life. Written by various followers at different times, the sources are the subject of scholarly debate about the basic principles of his religiosity. It is beyond the scope of this essay to resolve the “Franciscan question.” What matters for my purposes is how Francis and his relation to food are depicted in these sources.
3 Quotations in the article are in English translation. The original Latin or Italian quotations will appear in endnotes. The medieval sources for Francis in English translation are contained in the excellent collection edited by Regis Armstrong et al. I list the English names of the works that I quote from here in chronological order of composition: The Writings of Francis of Assisi, The Life of Saint Francis by Thomas of Celano, The Beginning or Founding of the Order and the Deeds of Those Lesser Brothers Who Were the First Companions of Blessed Francis in Religion, The Legend of the Three Companions, The Assisi Compilation, The Remembrance of the Desire of a Soul by Thomas of Celano, The Legends and Sermons on Saint Francis by Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, A Mirror of the Perfection.
4 In the Gospels, in particular Luke, meals, food, and drink are linked to Christ’s major teaching moments. One of the distinctive elements about Luke is the emphasis on the table and eating. Luke contains eight occasions when Christ eats meals and two where the meal is implied in the narrative. Each is associated with a monumental teaching. For example: in 5:27–32 Jesus eats with outcasts (tax collectors and sinners) at a banquet at Levi’s house and affirms that he has not come for the righteous but for the sinners; in 7:36–50 he eats dinner at Simon’s house where his feet are washed by the sinful woman and he forgives her transgressions; in 9:10–17 he feeds the crowd of 5,000 that he was teaching; in 10:38–42 he receives hospitality at Martha and Mary’s house, rebukes Martha’s choice of values (housework), praises Mary’s preference for listening to his teaching, and affirms that a simple meal (one dish) is sufficient for hospitality; in 11:37–52 he eats dinner at a Pharisee’s house and responds to criticism that he is unwashed before the meal by insisting that the inner life is as important as the outer; in 14:1–24 he shares a Sabbath meal at a Pharisee’s house and teaches on humility and God’s kingdom; in 19:1–10 he takes hospitality at the tax collector Zacchaeus’ house and declares he has come to seek and save the lost; in 22:14–38 he eats with his disciples and transforms a Jewish devotional meal into an expression of association with himself—the Lord’s Supper; in 24:28–32 he appears to his disciples and breaks bread with them; in 24:36–43 he shows his disciples the wounds in his hands and feet, and then eats a meal in their presence.
5 His asceticism continues throughout his life both before and after he has followers who eagerly imitate him. Thomas of Celano states: “He rarely or hardly ever ate cooked foods, but if he did, he would sprinkle them with ashes or dampen the flavor of spices with cold water” (The Life of Saint Francis 1: 227). “Cocta cibaria vix aut rarissime admittebat, admissa vero saepe aut conficiebat cinere, aut condimenti saporem aqua frigida exstinguebat” (Vita prima 325–26). In the Legend of the Three Companions, his extreme fasting weakened his body, and townspeople thought he was crazy: “For they saw him so changed from his earlier ways and so weakened by starving his body, that they blamed everything he did on starvation and madness” (2:78). “Cernentes enim eum sic a pristinis moribus alteratum et carnis maceratione confectum, totum quod agebat exinanitioni et dementiae imputabant” (Legenda Trium Sociorum 1390).
6 According to Thomas of Celano if anything remains after the sparse meals he shares with his followers, they store it: “…in a tomb, which had once held the bodies of the dead, so they could eat it at another time” (The Life of Saint Francis 1: 214). “Si quid vero residuum erat, quoniam alicui dare non poterant, recondebant illud in quodam sepulchro, quod aliquando conservaverat corpora mortuorum, ut idem iterum manducarent” (Vita prima 309).
7 Early accounts by followers note how he often rebukes them, obstinately refusing both medicines and necessary food. No doubt his sparse and unhealthy diet contribute to his multiple illnesses. Francis endured many sicknesses including trachoma (contagious conjunctivitis granulosa), malarial fevers, malnutrition, gastric ulcers, stomach problems, possible leprosy, dropsy, etc. See Schatzlein and Sulmasy, and Schmucki.
8 When he gives in, Francis’s own eating or drinking is frequently associated with miraculous events and is laden with didactic overtones. Thomas of Celano tells of one instance when water is changed into wine for him. This is an event to be marveled at since consuming it induces his recovery: “Once he tasted it, he recovered so easily that everyone believed it was a divine miracle, as indeed it was” (The Life of Saint Francis 1: 236). “Ad cuius gustum tanta facilitate convaluit, ut divinum fore miraculum, sicut et erat, ab omnibus crederetur” (Vita prima 336–37).
9 Once when he decides to make an effort to comply with the brothers’ desire that he eat, he asks for a type of fish called squalo. In the Assisi Compilation, suddenly three large squali and some crab cakes arrive, sent by a brother from afar: “As they considered his holiness, the brothers were amazed and praised the Lord who had provided for his servant, especially because it was winter and such things were not available in that area” (2: 174). “Et admirati sunt valde fratres considerantes sanctitatem eius et laudaverunt Dominum qui servo suo satisfecit, de quibus impossibile erat eis tunc satisfacere illi maxime quia hiems erat et in illa terra de talibus habere non poterant” (Compilatio Assisiensis 198). Another time, Francis desires to eat some parsley, an herb that is often given to strengthen the sick and dying. When a brother is called to get it for him, he informs Francis that none remains in the garden. Francis then commands him again to go and collect the first herb he finds. The brother brings back a stalk of parsley among a fistful of herbs. In Thomas of Celano’s Remembrance of the Desire of a Soul, Francis eats the parsley and feels better, then teaches his brothers about obedience: “Dear brothers, do what you’re commanded the first time you’re told, and don’t wait for it to be repeated. Don’t pretend that something is impossible; for even if what I command is beyond your strength, obedience will find the strength” (2: 281). “Fratres carissimi, primo verbo praeceptum implete, nec exspectetis iterandum quod dicitur. Nihil enim impossibilitatis causemini, quoniam etsi supra vires ipse mandarem, viribus obedientia non carerit” (Vita secunda 491). The Remembrance of the Desire of a Soul is also commonly referred to as The Second Life (Vita Secunda).
10 “…gustatis parumper carnibus propter observantiam sancti Evangelii, reliquum, quod comedere videbatur, deponebat in sinu manu ori adducta, ne quis posset perpendere quod agebat” (Vita prima 326). The Legend of the Three Companions says this occurs both with his brothers and with other dinner hosts: “Whenever he would eat with seculars, and they would give him some delicious food, he would eat only a little of it, offering some excuse so that it would not seem he was refusing it because of fasting. When he ate with his brothers, he often sprinkled ashes on the food he was eating, telling a brother, as a cover for his abstinence, that ‘Brother Ash’ was chaste” (2: 77). “Unde cum sederet aliquando ad manducandum cum saecularibus et dabantur ei aliqua cibaria delectabilia corpori suo, parum gustabat ex eis, aliquam excusationem praetendens ne videretur ea propter absinentiam dimisisse” (Legenda Trium Sociorum 1388).
11 Francis’s Earlier Rule specifies: “Whenever a need arises, all the brothers, wherever they may be, are permitted to consume whatever food people can eat” (1: 71). “Et quandocumque necessitas supervenerit, liceat universis fratribus, ubicumque fuerint, uti omnibus cibis quos possunt homines manducare…” (La regula 133). He repeats this idea again in the Later Rule.
12 “Quod si postquam sufficientem vorasset annonam, talia mussitaret, scito pigrum iumentum indigere calcaribus, et inertem asellum stimulum exspectare” (Vita secunda 581).
13 See Kleinberg, Gelber, and Attisani.
14 “Tantam afflictionem sibimet faciebant, quod quilibet videbatur habere odio semetipsum. Audiens et videns hoc beatus Franciscus arguebat eos, ut diximus, et ne tantum facerent iniungebat” (Anonymus Perusinus 1342).
15 As we have seen, Francis teaches his disciples to treat their bodies well and avoid excessive fasting. This “do as I say and not as I do” is an obvious contradiction to his companions. Thomas of Celano pens: “This was the only teaching which the most holy father’s actions were not in harmony with his words” (Remembrance of the Desire of a Soul 2: 332). “Hoc solo documento dissona fuit manus a lingua in patre sanctissimo” (Vita secunda 561).
16 “Et sedens cum illo fratre iuxta vitem, cepit de uvis comedere, ut non verecundaretur solus comedere, et manducantibus illis laudavit Dominum Deum frater ille, et illius misericordie quam fecit propter eum sanctus pater, toto tempore, dum vixit, cum magna devotione et lacrimarum effusione sepe recordatus est inter fratres” (Compilatio Assisiensis 122).
17 “Beatus Franciscus, sicut homo plenus caritate et discretione, ut non verecundaretur frater ille solus comedere, statim fecit apponi mensam, et comederunt omnes pariter cum illo. Nam noviter ille et alii conversi erant ad Dominum, et ultra modum affligebant corpora sua” (Compilatio Assisiensis 110).
18 “Fratres mei, ita dico vobis quod unusquisque consideret naturam suam; quia licet aliquis ex vobis sustentari valeat pauciori cibo quam alius, nolo tamen quod habundantiori cibo indigens illum in hoc imitari nitatur; sed naturam suam considerans, exhibeat corpori suo necessitatem suam. Sicut enim a superfluitate comestionis, que obest corpori et anime tenemur nobis cavere, ita a nimia abstinentia, immo magis quoniam Dominus misericordiam vult et non sacrificium” (Compilatio Assisiensis 110–12).
19 “Ut enim non taedeat ipsum vigilare et reverenter in oratione persistere, tollatur ei occasio murmurandi. Diceret enim: ‘Fame deficio, tui exercitii sarcinam ferre non valeo’” (Vita secunda 561).
20 “‘Non putant fratres quod corpori meo necessaria esset pitantia? Sed quia oportet e esse formam et exemplum omnium fratrum, volo uti et esse contentus pauperculis cibis et rebus, et non delicatis’” (Compilatio Assisiensis 114).
21 “Vos venistis ad me cum magna devotione et creditis me sanctum hominem, sed Deo et vobis confiteor quoniam in hac in illo heremitorio comedi cibaria de lardo condita” (Compilatio Assisiensis 232).
22 Francis did not always approve of complete literalism and forbade simple copycat imitation. See Gelber.
23 “‘Taliter volo vivere apud Deum in heremis et aliis locis ubi maneo, qualiter homines scirent et me viderent; quoniam si credunt me sanctum hominem et non facerem vitam quam convenit facere sancto homini, essem ipocrita’” (Compilatio Assisiensis 232).
24 “‘Ecce, videte glutonem, qui impinguatus est carnibus gallinarum, quas vobis ignorantibus manducavit’” (Vita prima 327).
25 “‘Vae nobis miseris, quorum vita tota versatur in sanguine, et in luxuriis et ebrietatibus corda et corpora enutriumus”’ (Vita Prima 327).
26 “‘Vos creditis me esse sanctum hominem et alii, qui meo exemplo seculum derelinquunt, et intrant Religionem fratrum et vitam. Sed Deo et vobis confiteor, quoniam in ista mea infirmitate comedi carnem et brodium carnium conditum’” (Compilatio Assisiensis 229–30).
27 “‘Si iste sanctus de iusta et manifesta necessitate cum tanta verecundia corporis se accusat, cuius vitam novimus, quem propter superfluitatem abstinentie et austeritatem quam habuit ab initio sue conversionis ad Christum contra corpus suum cernimus vivum in carne iam quasi premortua, quid faciemus et nos miseri qui toto tempore vite nostre viximus et voluimus vivere secundum voluntatem et desideria carnis?’” (Compilatio Assisiensis 230).
28 “‘Amore Domini Dei facite helemosinam isti pauperi peregrino et infirmo’” (Compilatio Assisiensis 206).
29 “‘Frater, nos simili modo pauperes sumus, et cum multi simus, sunt nobis necessarie helemosine quas comedimus, sed amore illius Domini quem invocavisti, intra domum et dabimus tibi de helemosinis quas Dominus debit nobis’” (Compilatio Assisiensis 206).
30 “‘Cum viderem mensam honorifice et curiose paratam, consideravi quod non esset mensa pauperum religiosorum, qui cotidie vadunt ostiatim. Nam nobis huiusmodi magis convenit in omnibus sequi exemplum humilitatis et paupertatis quam aliis religiosis, quia ad hoc vocati sumus et professi fuimus hoc coram Deo et hominibus. Unde modo videtur michi sedere sicut frater’” (Compilatio Assisiensis 206–08).
31 “Item dicebat quod fratres ita humiles et honestas mensas habere deberent, ut inde seculares possent hedificari; et si aliquis pauper invitaretur a fratribus, posset sedere iuxta eos, non pauper in terra et fratres in alto” (Compilatio Assisiensis 208).
32 A similar example occurs when Francis visits a bishop. In Thomas of Celano’s Rememberance of the Desire of a Soul, at mealtime he goes out for alms and returns to place crusts on the bishop’s table. The bishop, embarrassed in front of his dinner guests, later asks Francis why he shamed him by going out for alms. Francis replies that instead he really showed him honor by the alms, since the Lord is pleased by poverty. Francis tells him that he gets “…greater delight from a poor table, set with some little alms, than from a great table with so many dishes that they can hardly be numbered” (2: 296). “Plures delicias sumo de paupere mensa, quae parvis eleemosynis occupatur, quam de magnis in quibus fercula, quorum vix est numerus” (Vita secunda 512).
33 “Ita quod per misericordiam Dei, occasione illius caritatis et familiaritatis quam fratres illis exhibuerunt, alii intraverunt Religionem, alii acceperunt penitentiam, promittentes in manibus fratrum se de cetero huiusmodi mala non committere, sed de labore manuum suarum velle vivere” (Compilatio Assisiensis 380).
34 For discussion of leprosy in the Middle Ages, see Brody.
35 Francis normally referred to lepers as “Christian brothers.”
36 “‘Haec sit paenitentia mea, videlicet ut comedam simul in una scutella cum fratre Christiano’” (Speculum Perfetionis 1938).
37 The account specifies that the pus and blood fell into the bowl and mixed with the food.