Visual Framing of the Early Weeks of the U.S.-Led Invasion of Iraq: Applying the Master War Narrative to Electronic and Print Images

Abstract

A content analysis of 1,822 images from U.S. mainstream media—network and cable television news outlets, news Web sites, newspapers, and news magazines—revealed that the visual framing of the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 shifted from conflict to human interest. During the campaign's first 5 weeks, 5 distinct scenarios—shock and awe, conquering troops, hero, victory, and control—often coalesced around iconic images and supported a “master war narrative” identified by other scholars. These visual frames reflected a government-promoted patriotic perspective seen in media content at the outset of previous U.S. wars, from the Civil War through the Gulf War.

Notes

Note: *Because of rounding, some percentages do not add up to 100.

¹ The Arizona Republic, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, the Chicago Tribune, the Daily News of New York, The Dallas Morning News, the Houston Chronicle, the Los Angeles Times, The Miami Herald, The New York Times, Newsday, The Oregonian of Portland, the Rocky Mountain News of Denver, The Sacramento Bee, the St. Petersburg Times, The Tampa Tribune, USA Today, The Virginian-Pilot of Norfolk, and The Washington Post.

²Because most broadcasters stopped round-the-clock news coverage a few days after the start of the war, on March 26, 2003, and subsequent sample dates, data were collected from the beginning of national nightly news broadcasts. Screen captures were made of Internet home pages at the same time the television newscasts were recorded.

³In a few cases, such as the live pool camera images of the Baghdad skyline on the opening night of the war, the same television image was coded twice. However, this happened only if there was a cutaway or close-up in between the same static shots.

⁴The official war machine category consisted of images of U.S. military commanders (including President George Bush), U.S. military and civilian official(s), non-U.S. coalition military officials, U.S. or coalition ordnance, scenes of the bombardment of Baghdad, scenes of destruction, maps (of Iraq, Kuwait, or the entire Middle East) that located the conflict, and flags. The U.S. and coalition troops category consisted of images of U.S. troops, coalition troops, and U.S. troops and/or coalition troops depicted with Iraqis or military equipment. The enemy category consisted of images of Saddam Hussein, representations of Saddam Hussein (such as statues or posters of the Iraqi leader), Iraqi troops, Iraqi militia, Iraqi official(s), and terrorists. The Iraqi civilians category consisted of images of Iraqi noncombatants or humanitarian relief. The U.S. reaction category consisted of images of home front activities and antiwar protesters. The journalists category consisted of images of anchors or correspondents for television, print, or the Internet.

⁵Categories were collapsed into war machine, troops, and others to avoid unacceptably low expected cell counts.

⁶Categories were collapsed into war machine, troops, and others to avoid unacceptably low expected cell counts.

⁷Categories were collapsed into war machine, troops, the enemy, and others to avoid unacceptably low expected cell counts.

⁸Categories were collapsed into war machine, troops, and others to avoid unacceptably low expected cell counts.

⁹ U.S. News & World Report, 134(10). (2003, March 31). Cover.