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Notes
1 Walt Whitman, “This Compost”, in The Complete Poems (London: Penguin 2005), 390.
2 Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press 2010); see also Jack Eckel and Samuel Moyn (eds.), The Breakthrough (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014).
3 Rolf Sartorius, “Utilitarianism, Rights and Duties to Self”, American Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 3, July 1985.
4 Ramiro Avila Santamaria, “Citizen Insecurity and Human Rights: Toward the Deconstruction of the Security Discourse and a New Criminal Law”, in Cesar Rodriguez-Garavito (ed.), Law and Society in Latin America: A New Map (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015), 251–278.
5 Nigel S. Rodley with Matt Pollard, The Treatment of Prisoners under International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009 3rd edition).
6 Some key texts reviewed are: Sarah Joseph and Melissa Caston, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Cases Material and Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, 3rd edition); Philip Alston and Ryan Goodman, International Human Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Daniel Moeckli, Sangeeta Shah and Sandesh Sivakumaran (eds.), International Human Rights Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); and Ben Emmerson, Andrew Ashworth and Alison MacDonald, Human Rights and Criminal Justice (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 2007).
7 John Braithwaite and Philip Petit, Not Just Deserts: A Republican Theory of Criminal Justice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 15–16.
8 Examples of such teleological accounts can be found in Paul Gordon Lauren, The Evolution of Human Rights: Visions Seen (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998) and Micheline R. Ishay, The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2004).
9 Nicole Rafter, “Criminology's Darkest Hour: Biocriminology in Nazi Germany”, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2008. 287–306.
10 Michael Rosen, Dignity: Its History and Meaning (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 19.
11 Kant's theory is a prototypical example of deontological ethics, which requires a moral choice to be justified on the basis of certain a priori principles rather than expected outcomes of that choice. The approach contrasts with utilitarian theories which hold that moral choices and actions ought to maximise the overall good.
12 Immanuel Kant, The Metaphysical Elements of Justice: Part I of the Metaphysics of Morals. Trans. John Ladd (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965), 101.
13 Barbara A. Hudson, Understanding Justice: An Introduction to Ideas, Perspectives and Controversies in Modern Penal Theory (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1996), 51.
14 Kant, The Metaphysical Elements, 140.
15 Jeffrie G. Murphy, Retribution, Justice and Therapy (Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1979), 90.
16 G.W.F Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right. Trans. H.B. Nisbet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 116.
17 Ibid., 124–127.
18 Ibid., 126–127.
19 Cesare Beccaria, On Crimes and Punishment (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2009, 5th edition), 33.
20 On Beccaria's influence on the European penal landscape, see Leon Radzinowicz, Ideology and Crime: A Study of Crime in Social and Historical Context (London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1966), 14-28; Elio Monachesi, “Cesare Beccaria” in Hermann Mannheim (ed.), Pioneers in Criminology (London: Stevens & Sons, 1960), 36–49.
21 Raymond Saleilles, The Individualization of Punishment (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1911), 18.
22 Karl Marx, Dispatches for the New York Tribune: Selected Journalism of Karl Marx (London: Penguin, 2007), 122.
23 Ian Cumming and Simon Wilson, “Mentally Ill Prisoners and Mental Health Issues in Prison”, in Simon Wilson and Ian Cumming (eds.), Psychiatry in Prisons: A Comprehensive Handbook. (London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2010), 41.
24 John Podmore, “The Current Structure of Prison Service” in Wilson and Cumming (eds.), Psychiatry in Prisons, 21.
25 Adrian Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1993), 241.
26 David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 34–40.
27 Alexander W. Psciotta, “Scientific Reform: The ‘New Penology' at Elmira”, Crime and Delinquency 29, January 1983, 620.
28 Rafter, “Criminology's Darkest Hour” (n 9).
29 Francis T. Cullen, “Rehabilitation: Beyond Nothing Works”, in Michael Tonry (ed.), “Crime and Justice in America: 1975–2025”, Vol. 42 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research (2013), 312; also see Francis T. Cullen and Karen E. Gilbert, Reaffirming Rehabilitation (Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing, 1982), 7.
30 Auguste Comte, Introduction to Positive Philosophy. Trans. –5
31 Richard Tarnas, The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas that Have Shaped Our World View (London: Pimlico, 1991), 352.
32 The term “eugenics” is believed to have been coined by Charles Darwin's half-cousin, the self-styled geneticist, anthropologist and explorer, Francis Galton in 1883. See Clare Anderson, Legible Bodies. Race, Criminality and Colonialism in South Asia (Oxford: Berg, 2004), 181.
33 For a case against such broad-brush dismissals of positivist criminology, see David Garland, “Criminal and His Science. A Critical Account of the Formation of Criminology at the End of the Nineteenth Century”, British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 25, No. 2, April 1985, 109–137; on the decline of biologically oriented studies in criminological research in the US, see John P. Wright et al. “Lombroso's Legacy: The Miseducation of Criminologists”, Journal of Criminal Justice Education, Vol. 19, No. 3, November 2008, 325.
34 Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration. A European Disorder, c. 1848 – c. 1918 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 110.
35 Adrian Raine, The Anatomy of Violence: The Biological Roots of Crime (London: Allen Lane, 2013), 13.
36 Radzinowicz, Ideology and Crime, 56–57.
37 William A. Bonger, Criminality and Economic Conditions (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943).
38 For an introduction to Marxist criminology, see Stephen Jones, Criminology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006, 2nd edition), 232–260.
39 Francis A. Allen, “Raffaele Garofalo” in Mannheim (ed.), Pioneers (n 20), 254–276.
40 Richard F. Wetzell, “The Medicalization of Criminal Law Reform in Imperial Germany”, in Norbert Finzsch and Robert Jutte (eds.), Institutions of Confinement: Hospitals, Asylums, and Prisons in Western Europe and North America, 1500–1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 275–283.
41 Radzinowicz, Ideology and Crime, 57.
42 Explaining the full significance and genealogy of this shift merits a separate essay. For a useful catalogue of institutional changes, see Roger S. Clark, The United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Programme: Formulations of Standards and their Implementation (Philadelphia PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994).
43 See, for example, Joel Feinberg, Doing & Deserving: Essays in the Theory of Responsibility (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970), 95–118.
44 Martin Gardner, “The Renaissance of Retribution: An Examination of ‘Doing Justice”, Wisconsin Law Review 1976: 781–815.
45 Donald Sassoon, One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twentieth Century (London: I.B. Tauris, 2010), 145; also see Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane, 1998), 359.
46 Friedrich von Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1944), 67, 84; Mazower, Dark Continent, 206.
47 Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher talking to Women's Own magazine, October 31 1987.
48 Ian Shapiro, The Evolution of Rights in Liberal Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 151–203.
49 Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State and Utopia (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974), 10, 26–53.
50 Ibid., ix.
51 Robert Nozick, Philosophical Explanations (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1981), 374–375, 77.
52 For a recent analysis in relation to the British disclosure rules and the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights, see Elena Larrauri Pijoan, “Criminal Record Disclosure and the Right to Privacy”, Criminal Law Review, Issue 10, 2015. 723–737.
53 See, for example, Becky Pettit, Invisible Men: Mass Incarceration and the Myth of Black Progress (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2012).
54 Leo Zaibert, “Punishment and Revenge”, Law and Philosophy, 25, 2006. 81–118; Nigel Walker, “Nozick's Revenge”, Philosophy, Vol. 70, No. 274, October 1995. 581–586.
55 Zaibert, “Punishment and Revenge”, 97–98.
56 See, for example, Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York: W.W. Norton, 1975), 152–153.
57 Christian Parenti, Lockdown America: Police and Prisons in the Age of Crisis (London: Verso, 2008, 2nd edition), xii.
58 On the ‘prison-industrial complex’, including the exploitation of prison labour for weapons production in America, see Tara Herivel and Paul Wrights (eds.), Prison Profiteers: Who Makes Money from Mass Incarceration (New York: New Press, 2007); see also Parenti, Lockdown America, 10, 48, and Tod R. Clear and Natasha A. Frost, The Punishment Imperative: The Rise and Failure of Mass Incarceration in America (New York: New York University Press, 2014), 71–112.
59 Deborah Drake, John Muncie, Louise Westmarland, Criminal Justice, Local and Global (London: Sage, 2010), 39. See also John Pratt et al. (eds.), The New Punitiveness: Trends, Theories and Perspectives (Devon: Willian Publishing, 2005); Loïc Wacquant, “The Penalisation of Poverty and the Rise of Neo-Liberalism”, European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 2001, Vol. 9, No. 4, 401–412; Trevor Jones and Time Newburn, Policy Transfer and Criminal Justice: Exploring US Influence over British Crime Control Policy (Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2007).
60 The period from the late 1960s to the mid-1980s (cf Eric Hobsbawm's characterisation of 1789-1914 as the “long 19th century”).
61 Moyn, The Last Utopia, 16.
62 Ibid., 17.
63 Andy Beckett, When the Lights Went Out: Britain in the Seventies (London: Faber & Faber, 2009), 209–233.
64 Selina Todd, The People: The Rise and Fall of the Working Class (London: John Murray, 2014), 299–315.
65 Philip Alston, “Ships Passing in the Night: The Current Status of Human Rights and Development Debate Seen Through the Lens of the Millennium Development Goals”, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 3, August 2005. 755–829.
66 Nicola Lacey, The Prisoners' Dilemma: Political Economy and Punishment in Contemporary Democracies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
67 Nicola Lacey and Hannah Pickard, “The Chimera of Proportionality: Institutionalising Limits on Punishment in Contemporary Social and Political Systems” (2015) 78 (2) Modern Law Review, 216–240.
68 Ibid., 225, 227.
69 Ibid., 236.
70 Ibid., 235.
71 Deborah H. Drake, Prisons, Punishment and the Pursuit of Security (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).
72 Ibid., 108.
73 Ibid.
74 Ibid., 134.
75 Ibid., 172; also see William Schabas, Unimaginable Atrocities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 168.
76 This type of dichotomous thinking is quite common in scholarship in the area of transitional justice. See, for example, Tristan Garcia, “Amnesties and the Rome Statute – A Legitimate Bar to Prosecution?” 13 Australian International Law Journal. 187, 2006; and Andreas O' Shea, Amnesty for Crime in International Law and Practice (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2004).
77 Avila Santamaria, “Citizen Insecurity and Human Rights” (n 4), 251–278.
78 In the context of the Netherlands, Renée van Swaaningen has argued that the discourse of “safety” emerged in the 1990s replacing the narrower concept of ‘crime control'. Renée van Swaaningen, “Public Safety and the Management of Fear”, Theoretical Criminology, August 2005, Vol. 9, No. 3, 289–305.
79 Avila Santamaria, “Citizen Insecurity and Human Rights” (n 4), 259.
80 Ibid., 254.
81 Ibid., 267.
82 Ibid., 269.
83 Andrew von Hirsch, Doing Justice. The Choice of Punishments: Report of the Committee for the Study of Incarceration (New York: Hill & Wang, 1976).
84 Gardner, “The Renaissance of Retribution” (n 44) 785.
85 Andrew Von Hirsh, “Penal Theories” in Michael Tonry (ed.), The Handbook of Crime and Punishment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). 659–682
86 von Hirsch, Doing Justice, 107–117.
87 See Lacey and Pickard, “The Chimera of Proportionality” (n 67).
88 For a broader critique of Kantian ethics on these lines, see Victor J. Seidler. The Moral Limits of Modernity: Love, Inequality and Oppression (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991).
89 See Lacey and Pickard, “The Chimera of Proportionality” (n 67) and Nigel Walker, “Desert: Some Doubts”, in Andrew von Hirsch and Andrew Ashworth (eds.), Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1998, 2nd edition), 156–160.
90 John Kleinig, Punishment and Desert (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1973), 127–128.
91 von Hirsch, Doing Justice, 66.
92 Ewing v California 538 U.S. 11 (2003) and Lockyer v Andrade 538 U.S 63 (2003).
93 Jeremy Travis, “Invisible Punishment: An Instrument of Social Exclusion”, in Marc Mauer and Meda Chesney-Lind (eds) Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment (New York: Free Press, 2002), 15–36.
94 Sanford Bates. Prisons and Beyond (New York: Macmillan, 1937), 233.
95 Pettit, Invisible Men, 83.
96 Ibid., 84.
97 John Hagan and Ronit Dinovitzer, "Collateral Consequences of Imprisonment for Children, Communities, and Prisoners”, in Michael Tonry and Joan Petersilla (eds.), “Prisons”, Vol. 26 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research (1999), 123.
98 Joyce A. Arditti, Parental Incarceration and the Family: Psychological and Social Effects of Imprisonment on Children, Parents and Caregivers (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 59.
99 Holly Foster and John Hagan, “The Mass Incarceration of Parents in America: Issues of Race/Ethnicity, Collateral Damage to Children, and Prisoner Reentry”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 623 (May 2009), 180.
100 Megan Comfort, Doing Time Together: Love and Family in the Shadow of the Prison (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 2, 9.
101 Ibid., 12, 17.
102 Ibid., 17.
103 Ibid., 185–198.
104 Ibid., 196.
105 Garland, The Culture of Control, 59–60; von Hirsh, “Penal Theories” (n 85), 666.
106 Willard Gaylin and David J. Rothman, “Introduction” in von Hirsch, Doing Justice, xxxiv.
107 Von Hirsch, Doing Justice, 143–149; for arguments in support of social justice concerns informing the doctrine of criminal responsibility, see David L. Bazelon, “The Morality of the Criminal Law”, 49 Southern California Law Review (1976), 385; also Stephen J. Morse, “The Twilight of Welfare Criminology: A Reply to Judge Bazelon”, 49 Southern California Law Review (1976), 1247.
108 von Hirsch, Doing Justice, 144; Marx, Dispatches, 119–122.
109 Marx, Dispatches, 145.
110 Amartya Sen, The Idea of Justice (London: Penguin, 2010), 20.
111 Ibid.
112 Ibid., 21.
113 According to von Hirsch, ‘even if rehabilitation works, basing the sentence on the offender's need for treatment falls afoul of the commensurate principles’. Rehabilitation, he believed, ‘should be distinguished from helping an offender with his own problems', which ‘ought to be offered on a voluntary basis'. von Hirsch, Doing Justice, 127–128.
114 Anatole France, The Red Lily (Boston, MA: IndyPublish.com, 2002), 62.
115 von Hirsch, Doing Justice, 147.
116 Ibid., 146.
117 See, for example: Vincenzo Ruggiero, Penal Abolitionism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Nils Christie, Limits to Pain: The Role of Punishment in Penal Policy (Wipf & Stock, 2007); Thomas Mathiesen, Prison on Trial (Winchester: Waterside Press, 2006, 3rd edition); Braithwaite and Petit, Not Just Deserts.