Psychological capital as a mediator of job satisfaction and burnout among teachers in special and standard education

ABSTRACT

Teaching is a stressful profession, and rates of departure are high. We examined whether teachers’ levels of psychological capital (PsyCap), a concept integrating four positive psychological resources (hope, self-efficacy, resilience, optimism), affects their job satisfaction and burnout. Israeli schools are now required to be inclusive; consequently, teachers in standard educational settings teach children with special needs, despite a lack of training. Our sample comprised 123 Israeli teachers: 56 from special education schools and 67 from standard education system. As hypothesised, higher levels of PsyCap were correlated with higher job satisfaction and lower burnout among all teachers. Also as hypothesised, there were differences in job satisfaction and burnout: special education teachers reported more job satisfaction and less burnout. Both groups had similar levels of PsyCap, thus not supporting our hypothesis. The findings suggest the need to rethink working conditions for teachers in standard education when classes are required to be inclusive. As it is possible to improve PsyCap through intervention programmes, researchers and policymakers may consider designing and testing interventions for teachers.

KEYWORDS:

• Psychological capital
• job satisfaction
• stress
• burnout
• special education
• standard education

Introduction

Teachers strongly influence students’ learning. They are considered essential to societal growth and success and make a crucial contribution to society (Clarence et al. 2021; Lavy and Naama-Ghanayim 2020). Given these high expectations, teaching often leads to burnout, with negative consequences on mental health and job retention. However, these undesirable outcomes may be mitigated, among other things, by a teacher’s job satisfaction and/or personal resources, such as psychological capital (PsyCap) (Adil and Kamal 2020; Mikus and Teoh 2022), a concept integrating four positive psychological resources: hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism.

In addition to the high expectations of teachers in general, Israeli teachers are facing a whole new set of complications (Ari-Am and Gumpel 2014). A recent move towards inclusion means students with special needs are increasingly incorporated into inclusive schools (Gidalevich and Shalev 2022). The new policy requires teachers in regular classes to meet educational standards without taking into account the differences between students or a possible lack of training in handling students with special needs. We investigated whether Israel teachers who are asked to integrate special needs students into standard classrooms feel higher burnout and less job satisfaction than teachers who are trained to teach such students. We also asked whether their level of PsyCap was a mediator of burnout and satisfaction. We argued PsyCap would have a positive effect on job satisfaction and reduce burnout. If this is indeed the case, it may be possible to design suitable interventions, thus improving both personal well-being and teaching practice more generally.

Special education teachers in Israel

Based on their abilities, children with special needs have traditionally been placed in special education schools or special classes in standard schools; in both cases, students learn in small groups with special education teachers and teaching assistants and receive support from therapists and healthcare professionals (Donitsa-Schmidt and Ramot 2020). However, special needs children placed in inclusive classes may not have such support (Crispel and Kasperski 2021).

Special education teachers are trained to teach students aged 3–21 diagnosed with one or more significant disability, such as intellectual disability, autistic spectrum disorder, hearing or visual loss, learning or language disabilities, mental-behavioural health disorders. (Billingsley and Bettini 2019). They can teach in all alternatives mentioned above. Some work primarily in inclusive settings, co-teaching with standard educators (Chitiyo and Brinda 2018) while others provide small-group instruction in special or standard education settings (Mitchell, Deshler, and Lenz 2012). Their instructional demands vary substantially, depending on students’ needs and the goals and services outlined in students’ individualised education plans. Some teach one content area (e.g. literacy), while others teach all areas. They are often responsible for both supporting students in learning the general education curricula and remediating foundational skill deficits (Billingsley and Bettini 2019). Special education teachers have specific challenges. They are required to practice adapted interventions and teaching methods and to establish personal relationships with students with multidimensional needs, while collaborating with interdisciplinary staff (Forlin and Chambers 2017; Young 2018).

In inclusive teaching, teachers in standard educational settings are expected to identify the needs of students and allow them to learn according to their level, their cognitive or cultural ability, or their learning strengths and preferences. They are expected to find a way to reach each student, even special needs students, and even if they have not been trained (Blass 2022; Ne’eman et al., 2022). Notably, the inclusive classroom contains more students than the special education classroom (approximately 35 students) (Taller-Azulay, Heiman, and Olenik-Shemesh 2022). We asked how inclusion is affecting these teachers’ burnout and job satisfaction and if PsyCap mediate these relations.

Teachers’ job satisfaction

Job satisfaction reflects individuals’ experience of pleasurable emotional states derived from their evaluation of a job (Madigan and Kim 2021). A positive feeling about the task and a sense of job satisfaction lead to confidence and enthusiasm (Moè, Pazzaglia, and Ronconi 2010). Positive emotions accompany high job satisfaction; negative emotions accompany low job satisfaction (Otrębski 2022). Job satisfaction leads to a number of positive outcomes (Bowling 2007) both emotionally and in the way work is performed. In the school setting, satisfied teachers teach better; job satisfaction boosts their enthusiasm and has positive effects on interpersonal communications with students (Weiqi 2007). It can increase teachers’ leadership (Alonderiene and Majauskaite 2016; García Torres 2018), promote mental health (Travers and Cooper 2018), and positively affect professional development (Toropova, Myrberg, and Johansson 2021).

The teaching profession requires teachers to work with colleagues on an ongoing basis, hold team meetings after teaching hours and more. Thus, the workplace is a social and psychological environment in which interpersonal relationships are forged (Elam 2022). Some teachers perceive their work environment as good, enjoyable, and supportive, but others find it difficult and burdensome (Hartinah et al. 2020). Those who feel the educational organisation in which they work treats them in a positive and supportive manner will show a high level of satisfaction. This, in turn, may reduce attrition, as satisfied teachers are less likely to leave the profession (McCarthy 2019).

Note that the organisation may also comprise the state-level teacher training and the state inclusion policy. We were specifically interested in the comparative job satisfaction of teachers in special and standard education settings in the context of the Israeli educational reform. While special education teachers have dedicated training, teachers in standard settings do not. They must teach a large number of students, including students with special needs, without the appropriate tools (Blass 2022; Taller-Azulay, Heiman, and Olenik-Shemesh 2022). We argued this may have a negative effect on job satisfaction and increase burnout.

Teachers’ burnout

Burnout is a psychological syndrome caused by exposure to stressful working contexts, including demanding tasks and insufficient resources (Dias, Peixoto, and Cadime 2021). Burnout has professional consequences, including impaired job satisfaction, absenteeism, decreased productivity, and a reduced organisational commitment that can result in an individual leaving the job (Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter 2001). Thus, consequences go beyond the immediate personal experience to impact the workplace.

Teachers have a high risk of burnout (Capel, 2006). Teaching is associated with high levels of stress (Candeias et al. 2021), and burnout can be a consequence of long-term exposure to stress in the workplace (Betoret 2009; Khani and Mirzaee 2015). In the last few years, teachers in general, not just Israeli teachers, have faced numerous challenges in their role as educators, including work overload, low wages, an increase in bureaucracy, social criticism, and greater demands (Foley and Murphy 2015; Jani 2017). A recent study found teachers in standard educational settings are expected to help transform society towards a multi-ethnic and multicultural lifestyle and may be responsible for children with disabilities integrated into their classrooms (Pellerone et al., 2020). This is likely to be especially stressful if teachers have not been trained in these tasks.

Recent research has found teacher burnout is a contributing factor to leaving the field of education early in a career. Many teachers leave before reaching their full potential due to a combination of decreased job satisfaction and burnout (Rosensteel 2020). Candeias et al., (2021) found teachers in standard schools showed higher levels of burnout than teachers in special education. Arguably, teachers in standard education face numerous work-related difficulties that increase the risk of burnout. For example, they are likely to have large and crowded classes where students with and without special needs study together. Exacerbating the problem, they may lack tools, knowledge, support, and resources (Roach 2009). Special educators are more likely to leave the profession when they experience more demands and weaker social supports (e.g. Conley and You 2014). We argued that these were not likely to be factors in the Israeli case as the expectations of special education teachers have not changed.

Relations between job satisfaction and burnout

Job satisfaction and burnout are conceptually distinct and must be studied separately. First, while for all teachers, both pertain to teaching and associated practice, burnout also relates to the self (e.g. appraisals of one’s ability). Second, they can be considered distinct in relation to the ways teachers evaluate their teaching. Specifically, a dissatisfied teacher will not like the job, while a burnt-out teacher will feel incapable of performing it adequately (Madigan and Kim 2021). Despite their conceptual differences, the two are often intertwined.

Researchers have found burnout and job satisfaction are the most important factors in predicting the intentions of teachers in all educational settings to quit, but burnout may be a greater risk than reduced job satisfaction (Madigan and Kim 2021). Research in China (Lu et al. 2019) examined relations between job satisfaction, professional identity, and burnout in a sample of 267 teachers in standard educational settings. Professional identity and job satisfaction predicted burnout, and the effect of professional identity on burnout was partially mediated by job satisfaction. In addition, job satisfaction significantly moderated relations between professional identity and burnout. These findings suggest professional identity and job satisfaction are critical indicators of burnout.

Another study (Molero Jurado et al. 2019) examined the relations of burnout with perceived educational context, perceived teaching efficacy, job satisfaction, and commitment in a sample of 500 high-school teachers in standard educational settings. One-third had high burnout, and elevated burnout was associated with low perceived efficacy, low job satisfaction, and low professional commitment. Zincirli (2021) examined relations between job satisfaction, burnout, and individual performance perceptions among 359 teachers in standard educational settings in Turkey. Teachers’ job satisfaction significantly and negatively predicted burnout. Furthermore, teachers’ job satisfaction mediated relations between individual performance perception through burnout.

Few studies consider the management of work-related burnout and stress in special education teachers, highlighting the importance of the present study (Onuigbo, Onyishi, and Eseadi 2020).

PsyCap

We argued PsyCap may explain relations between job satisfaction and burnout among both special education teachers and teachers in standard settings. PsyCap is a first-order positive psychological and motivational resource. The concept draws from positive psychology in general and positive organisational behaviour (POB) in particular (Luthans and Youssef-Morgan 2017). POB is defined as ‘the study and application of positively oriented human resources, strengths and psychological capacities that can be measured, developed, and effectively managed for performance improvement in today’s workplace’ (Luthans 2002, 59). PsyCap has been linked to employee attitudes, behaviour, and performance at different levels: individual, team, and organisational (Newman et al. 2014). It integrates four positive psychological resources: hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism (Luthans, Youssef-Morgan, and Avolio 2015).

Hope has been defined as ‘a positive motivational state based on an interactively derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal-directed energy) and (b) pathways (planning to meet goals)’ (Snyder, Irving, and Anderson 1991, 287). Self-efficacy refers to ‘the individual’s conviction or confidence about his or her abilities to mobilise the motivation, cognitive resources or courses of action needed to successfully execute a specific task within a given context’ (Stajkovic and Luthans 1998, 66). Resilience is ‘the capacity to rebound or bounce back from adversity, conflict, failure or even positive events, progress and increased responsibility’ (Luthans 2002, 702), and optimism is a positive explanatory style that attributes positive events to personal, permanent, and pervasive causes, and interprets negative events in terms of external, temporary, and situation-specific factors (Seligman 1998).

When these four resources are combined, they have been empirically supported as a higher-order core construct based on their commonalities and unique characteristics (Luthans et al. 2007). Together, they can help individuals maintain an internalised sense of control and intentionality while goals are pursued and accomplished (Luthans and Youssef-Morgan 2017). Recent studies have noted PsyCap’s contribution to workers’ enhanced job satisfaction (Kurt and Demirbolat 2019), engagement (Tsaur, Hsu, and Lin 2019), well-being (Kun and Gadanecz 2022), outcomes, and performance (Darvishmotevali and Ali 2020). It also has been found to have negative correlations with stress and burnout (Jensen 2020). These findings strongly suggest the value of PsyCap for teachers in general.

Relations between PsyCap, job satisfaction, and burnout

Researchers have found workplace well-being and happiness (i.e. job satisfaction) are correlated with inner psychological resources. Realising goals, getting feedback, finding meaning in work, and maintaining a positive attribute have positive effects on job satisfaction (Kun and Gadanecz 2022). Gailey-Burdine (2021) found negative correlations between burnout and self-efficacy among special education teachers. A study of teachers in standard educational settings found positive and stimulating working conditions (i.e. job resources) predicted lower levels of burnout (Hakanen, Bakker, and Schaufeli 2006).

Research on PsyCap in educational organisations is in its early stages (Burhanuddin et al. 2019), but some work on relations between PsyCap, job satisfaction, and burnout has suggested PsyCap is a predictive factor in the level of job satisfaction and engagement, directly affects work performance, and is associated with low levels of burnout (Luthans et al. 2007). However, when job satisfaction is low, an employee’s PsyCap is likely to be low as well and may be reflected in a feeling of burnout and exhaustion in the workplace (Freire et al. 2020; Jensen 2020; Manzano-García and Ayala 2017; Viseu et al. 2016). The main explanation is a continuous experience of chronic emotional and interpersonal stress factors in the workplace. Individuals not equipped with sufficient levels of PsyCap are at risk of experiencing higher levels of stress and, in turn, higher levels of burnout (Kim and Kweon 2020). If so, it makes sense that lower levels of interpersonal coping strategies (i.e. PsyCap) will predict burnout among teachers (Pavlidou, Alevriadou, and Antoniou 2022). Drawing on these previous findings, we argued PsyCap may serve as a mediator of job satisfaction and burnout in teachers in both standard and special education settings.

The present study

We examined relations between PsyCap, job satisfaction, and burnout in a sample of Israeli teachers in special and standard education. Based on the literature and the preceding argumentation, we asked three research questions. First, we asked if PsyCap correlates to job satisfaction and burnout among teachers in general. We hypothesised positive correlations between PsyCap and job satisfaction and negative correlations between PsyCap and burnout (Jensen 2020; Kurt and Demirbolat 2019; Luthans and Youssef-Morgan 2017). Note that we also examined correlations between teachers’ age and the three variables to control for its influence on data analysis.

Second, we considered possible differences between teachers in special education and in standard education in levels of job satisfaction, PsyCap, and burnout. We hypothesised teachers in special education schools would be characterised by higher levels of PsyCap and job satisfaction and less burnout than teachers in standard schools (Blass 2022; Taller-Azulay, Heiman, and Olenik-Shemesh 2022; Roach 2009).

Third, we asked whether PsyCap mediates relations between job satisfaction and burnout. We hypothesised that the higher a teacher’s job satisfaction, the higher the PsyCap and the lower the burnout (again treating age as a covariate). This hypothesis drew on studies finding PsyCap is a predictive factor in higher job satisfaction and lower levels of burnout (Freire et al. 2020; Luthans et al. 2007; Manzano-García and Ayala 2017).

Method

Participants

We collected data over three months in the middle of the academic year at Israeli elementary schools. We sent an announcement about the study directly to principals, asking for their permission to recruit teachers to answer our questionnaires. The principals were selected after we checked if the school was defined as special education or a regular school integrating special education students in special classes or inclusive classes. It is important to note that all education in Israel, special or standard, is part of the government education system and is under uniform supervision and standards; there are no private schools.

The study involved 123 teachers: 111 women, 12 men. The average age was 42.06 years (SD = 10.09); age range 25 to 66 years. Over 96% of participants were born in Israel; 60% had a Bachelor’s degree; 40% had a Master’s degree. About half (n = 56) worked in special education (special education school or a special class within a standard school), and about half (n = 67) taught in the standard education system (an inclusive class with or without a supporter). All participants were teaching in elementary schools or a setting equivalent to elementary school in terms of students’ cognitive level.

Variables and measurement

Job satisfaction

The first variable, job satisfaction, was defined as the attitude and expression of feelings towards the workplace. It was measured using Brayfield and Rothe’s (1951) index of job satisfaction which includes 19 items (e.g. ‘Most days I am enthusiastic about my work’). The rating of the items ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The questionnaire includes 10 reversed items (1,4,5,7,9,11,12,15,17,19). Total scores range from 19 to 95 points, with a higher score reflecting a greater degree of job satisfaction. Reliability in our study was α = .916.

PsyCap

PsyCap was measured using the 12-item version (PCQ-12) of the original PsyCap questionnaire (PCQ-24; Luthans et al., 2007). The questionnaire applies four positive psychological capacities (self-efficacy, hope, resilience, optimism) to work outcomes (e.g. ‘I feel confident helping to set targets/goals in my work area’; ‘When things are uncertain for me at work, I usually expect the best’). The 12-item version was validated by Avey, Avolio, and Luthans (2011). It comprises 12 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Total scores range from 12 to 60, with higher scores indicating higher levels of PsyCap. Reliability was α = .877.

Burnout

We used a questionnaire developed by Friedman (1999) to measure teachers’ work-related burnout of teachers. The questionnaire includes 14 items describing teachers’ feelings in three areas: exhaustion, lack of self-fulfilment, and depersonalisation of students (e.g. ‘I feel like teaching is wearing me out’; ‘I feel my expectations of the teaching profession are not being realised’). The questionnaire includes one reversed item (item 9). Respondents are asked to rate how often they have felt burnout in these areas in the last two to three months. The items are rated on a 6-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 6 (always). Total scores range from 14 to 84, with higher scores indicating higher levels of burnout. Reliability was α = .907.

Procedure

After receiving approval from the university’s ethics committee to conduct the research, the research questionnaire was delivered to teachers through an online survey (Qualtrics). Participants were informed about the aims of the study before giving their consent. The informed consent form included a commitment to privacy, anonymity, and non-use of the findings except in the present study.

Results

The first research question asked whether PsyCap would be correlated to job satisfaction and burnout among teachers in general. The corresponding hypothesis posited positive correlations between PsyCap and job satisfaction and negative correlations between PsyCap and burnout. We used Pearson correlations and inserted age into the analysis, as in some cases, burnout can be a by-product of age (Dias, Peixoto, and Cadime 2021; Parrello et al. 2019; Van Droogenbroeck, Spruyt, and Vanroelen 2014). To clarify the issue and to account for age, we took both variables into consideration when analysing the data. There was no significant correlation between burnout and age (r=-.161, p=.075).

The first hypothesis was fully corroborated: job satisfaction was significantly positively correlated to PsyCap and age and significantly negatively correlated to burnout. PsyCap was significantly negatively correlated to burnout and positively correlated to age. Burnout and age were not significantly correlated (Table 1). Thus, the higher the teachers’ job satisfaction, the higher their PsyCap, and the lower their burnout. The older the teachers were, the higher their satisfaction with their work and the higher their PsyCap.

Table 1. Means, SDs, and correlations between study variables (N = 123).

Variables	M (SD)	1	2	3
1. Satisfaction	3.83 (0.52)
2. PsyCap	3.96 (0.53	.642***
3. Burnout	2.64 (0.82)	-.739***	-.642***
4. Age	42.06 (10.09)	.226*	.268**	-.161

*p<.05 ** p < .01*** p < .001.

The second question targeted possible differences between teachers in special education and teachers in standard education in job satisfaction, PsyCap, and burnout. We hypothesised teachers in special education would be characterised by higher levels of PsyCap and job satisfaction and lower levels of burnout. Four t-test analyses partially confirmed the hypothesis. Teachers in special education felt less burnout and more job satisfaction than teachers in standard education, but the groups did not differ in PsyCap or age (Table 2).

Table 2. Differences between teachers in special education and teachers in standard education systems (N = 123).

	Special Education	Standard Education
Variables	M (SD)		t (121), p	Cohen’s d
Job Satisfaction	3.94 (0.43)	3.75 (0.57)	2.081, p = .040	.367
PsyCap	4.02 (0.36)	3.91 (0.63)	1.225, p = .223	.212
Burnout	2.35 (0.61)	2.87 (0.89)	-3.658, p < .001	-.662
Age	40.41 (8.90)	43.43 (10.86)	-1.667, p = .098	-.302

The third question asked whether PsyCap would mediate relations between job satisfaction and burnout. We hypothesised that the higher teachers’ job satisfaction, the higher their PsyCap and the lower their burnout. We ran a PROCESS procedure computing job satisfaction as the independent variable, burnout as the dependent variable, PsyCap as a mediator, and age as a covariant.

Results confirmed our hypothesis and showed a direct, positive, and statistically significant relationship between job satisfaction and PsyCap, B = 0.63, t = 8.66, p < .001, a direct, negative, and statistically significant relationship between PsyCap and burnout, B=-0.46, t=-3.82, p < .001., and a direct, negative, and statistically significant relationship between job satisfaction and burnout, B=-0.88, t=-7.34, p < .001 (Figure 1). Unstandardised indirect effects computed for 5,000 bootstrapped samples pointed to a statistically significant indirect relationship between job satisfaction and burnout via PsyCap as a mediator, B=-.28, p < .05, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -.51 to -.05. This model was the same for teachers in special education and teachers in the standard education system, separately.

Figure 1. Relations between job satisfaction and burnout via PsyCap as a mediator.

Discussion

We explored teachers’ PsyCap and its connection to job satisfaction and burnout, looking for possible differences between teachers in special and standard education settings in the context of inclusion. We also examined PsyCap’s possible mediation of relations between job satisfaction and burnout.

We hypothesised positive correlations between PsyCap and job satisfaction and negative correlations between PsyCap and burnout for all teachers. This hypothesis was fully corroborated. Previous work has similarly identified PsyCap as a key factor in enhancing job satisfaction (Elcicek et al., 2022; Han, Xu, and Xiao 2022; Kurt and Demirbolat 2019) and decreasing burnout (Jensen 2020). Our findings also corroborate prior work finding positive emotions imply high job satisfaction and negative emotions imply low job satisfaction and burnout (Otrębski 2022; Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter 2001). Altogether our findings and those of previous studies suggest teachers’ PsyCap affects job satisfaction (Kurt and Demirbolat 2019) and can be a crucial component of motivation. This, in turn, leads to less burnout and increased desire to remain in teaching (Viseu et al. 2016). Finally, our findings support those of previous studies showing job satisfaction is significantly and negatively correlated to burnout (Molero Jurado et al. 2019; Zincirli 2021).

Our second hypothesis innovatively focused on differences between teachers in special education and standard education in job satisfaction, PsyCap, and burnout, testing these variables together for the first time. We hypothesised special education teachers would be characterised by higher levels of PsyCap and job satisfaction and lower levels of burnout than teachers in standard educational settings. This hypothesis was partially confirmed. Special education teachers reported less burnout and more job satisfaction, but the groups did not differ in levels of PsyCap. Our findings support previous studies on the effects of inclusion, showing special education teachers have less burnout and more job satisfaction than their untrained comparators who are working under conditions of inclusion (Blass 2022; Candeias et al. 2021; Ne’eman et al., 2022). The combined findings suggest teachers in standard educational settings are at risk because of the pressures involved in teaching large inclusive classes, where students with and without special needs study together, and teachers lack tools, knowledge, support, and resources (Pellerone et al. 2020; Roach 2009; Taller-Azulay, Heiman, and Olenik-Shemesh 2022). It seems teachers who must be inclusive of students with special needs are not prepared for their new reality. This increases their stress and reduces their resilience, and, in turn, this affects their satisfaction and burnout. Arguably, higher PsyCap will improve their ability to deal with changes, distress, and uncertainty, leading to greater satisfaction with their work. Interestingly, the two groups did not differ in their PsyCap levels. Our findings suggest PsyCap has universal importance to teachers, regardless of whom they teach or where they teach. PsyCap supports teachers’ sense of job satisfaction, and they are less likely to suffer burnout if it is sufficiently high (Kun and Gadanecz 2022). In other words, PsyCap is a resource of uniform importance beyond a specific group and a resource that universally contributes to the development of positive psychological resources in the workplace (Hazan-Liran and Miller 2022). This suggests the value of promoting PsyCap in the context of inclusion.

The third hypothesis suggested PsyCap would mediate relations between job satisfaction and burnout among teachers in general. We found a statistically significant indirect relationship between job satisfaction and burnout via PsyCap as a mediator, thus corroborating our hypothesis. Like others, we conclude teachers who feel positive about their work and who feel supported will show a high level of satisfaction, and this will help reduce burnout and attrition (Madigan and Kim 2021; McCarthy 2019). Our findings, in conjunction with others, highlight PsyCap’s ability to mediate job satisfaction; this, in turn, leads to more work engagement and lower burnout (Freire et al. 2020; Jensen 2020; Luthans et al. 2007; Manzano-García and Ayala 2017; Viseu et al. 2016). Our findings are consistent with those of Kim and Kweon (2020) and Jensen (2020) who found job satisfaction could predict burnout; individuals not equipped with sufficient levels of PsyCap are at risk of higher levels of stress and, in turn, higher levels of burnout. They also support the suggestion that interpersonal coping strategies predict burnout among teachers (Pavlidou, Alevriadou, and Antoniou 2022) and substantiate our suggestion that interventions to improve PsyCap will have an ameliorative effect on burnout.

Conclusions and implications

Studies consistently show teachers have high levels of burnout and low levels of satisfaction. Our work is novel in that we compared two groups of teachers in the education system with respect to their PsyCap, job satisfaction, and burnout. Interestingly, although levels of PsyCap were similar, teachers in special education were more satisfied than teachers in standard education. These findings should provoke thought among school administrators and education policymakers. It may be useful to create solutions for teachers in standard education, perhaps conditions similar to those in special education settings, so they can experience higher levels of job satisfaction.

Our findings suggest PsyCap has universal importance for teachers. It seems PsyCap’s benefits go beyond a specific group and contribute to the universal development of positive psychological resources in the workplace. Since PsyCap can be developed through intervention programmes (Freire et al. 2020), it may be fruitful to offer such programmes to teachers to improve the teaching experience and reduce burnout.

Although PsyCap is an individual variable, it can be influenced by the organisation and the team. Specifically, PsyCap can be a group phenomenon, whereby working together as a team with shared goals and common psychological structures can positively influence teachers’ attitudes, pro-social acts, social support, and coping methods (Heled et al., 2016). A study examining whether PsyCap at the team level could influence PsyCap and positive outcomes at the individual level found the team’s learning climate and PsyCap were positively associated with individual outcomes and job satisfaction (Heled, Somech and Waters 2016). We therefore suggest the need to develop PsyCap among teachers, so they will maximise their own teaching processes and those of their co-workers.

Limitations and future research

The study had some limitations. First, out of 123 teachers, only 12 were men. With more men, the results may have been different, and this possibility should be considered. However, it is important to note that there are more women than men in the Israeli education system, partly because of the salary conditions (i.e. quite low), and partly because of a gendered social perception of the teaching profession. Future research should examine our variables in the context of gender and look for differences between men and women.

Second, the data were collected at one point, not over time. The models show relationships but do not indicate causation. Therefore, we cannot know which variable is the influencer. Future research could examine PsyCap, job satisfaction, and burnout in a longitudinal study to determine causation.

Future work could include designing an intervention programme to develop PsyCap and testing its ability to enhance job satisfaction and reduce burnout among teachers in both special and standard education. Finally, teaching involves team work, and colleagues provide key support; an important research direction could be to clarify relations between group and individual levels of PsyCap.

Ethics approval

Institutional committee approved the study design.

Consent to participate

Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.