Bordering Japan: Towards a Comprehensive Perspective

Abstract

What constitutes Japan's territory is a standard topic in historical overviews of Japan. Most works have focused on islands or land territories as well as on disputed islands, such as the Northern Territories (South Kuril), Takeshima (Dokdo), and the Senkaku (Diaoyu) Islands. However, Japan's territorial sovereignty extends beyond land territories to include both a sea zone and an air zone. This paper attempts to present a more comprehensive and balanced perspective on Japan's territorial sovereignty and thereby to suggest how Japan might resolve territorial disputes. A brief historical overview of Japan's borders from the end of the Edo period (1603–1868) to the present is given, followed by an examination of the Japanese government's positions in various dimensions of territorial sovereignty: the Northern Territories, Takeshima, the Senkaku Islands, United States Military Bases, Territorial Water, the Provisional Measures Zone, the Exclusive Economic Zone, Airspace, Air Defense Identification Zones, and air traffic control. Current analysis indicates three important features of Japanese territorial sovereignty. First, many ongoing disputes regarding Japan's land territory stem from US occupation policy. Second, Japan's attitude toward other issues, sea zone issues in particular, is flexible and leaves room for compromise rather than adopting an “all or nothing” position. Third, Japan's attitude toward airspace issues is passive and submissive, which is in sharp contrast to the above two situations. Researchers and policy makers often examine Japan's territorial issues separately because of a different stance taken by the Japanese government on each unresolved issue. However, a comprehensive picture, such as that suggested in this paper, should help formulate a strategic vision that encompasses a deep appreciation of the links among these land, air, and maritime territorial issues.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to Dr Tsuyoshi Kawasaki, Simon Fraser University, and Dr Akihiro Iwashita, Hokkaido University, for their useful comments. This study was supported by Hokkaido University Global COE Program and the Chukyo University Research Fund (2010–2011). The author would like to express his gratitude for this funding.

Notes

This paper deals only with the pieces of land on which the Japanese government put formal, legal claims as its home territories. It does not discuss the Micronesian islands for which Japan exercised its trusteeship mandate under the auspices of the League of Nations (1920–1945); Manchukuo (1932–1945), which Japan controlled indirectly; or the Asian regions that Japan temporarily occupied during World War II.

This map includes unresolved territorial disputes over the Northern Territories, the Senkaku Islands, and Takeshima.

“History of the Northern Territories.” Hokkaido Prefecture, http://www.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp/sm/hrt/hp-en/hist-en.htm (accessed April 29, 2012).

“Japan's Northern Territories.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/europe/russia/territory/pamphlet.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012).

Until then, the formal territorial status of the Ryukyu Islands had been unclear; this agreement implicitly confirmed Japanese sovereignty over those islands.

For more information, see Hara (2007, 143–57) and Chemillier-Gendreau (2000, 111–12).

“SCAPIN No. 677.” The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/takeshima/pdfs/g_taisengo01.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012).

For more information, see Hara (2007, 9–13).

“Treaty of Peace with Japan.” The World and Japan, http://www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~worldjpn/documents/texts/docs/19510908.T1E.html (accessed April 29, 2012).

For more information about the process of the Amami Reversion, see Eldridge (2004).

UNCLOS rules about the 12-mile territorial sea and the 200-mile fishing zone came into existence only in 1994.

“What are the Northern Territories?” Hokkaido government, http://www.pref.hokkaido.lg.jp/sm/hrt/hp-en/nani-en.htm (accessed April 29, 2012).

See Note 4.

“Northern Territories Issue.” Northern Territories Issue Association, http://www.hoppou.go.jp/hoppou/wp-content/uploads/pdf/english.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012).

Ibid.

Ibid.

During Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka's visit to the Soviet Union in October 1973, Secretary-General Leonid Brezhnev verbally confirmed that the Northern Territories issue was included in the unresolved issues remaining from World War II. However, shortly after that, in spite of this statement by Secretary-General Brezhnev, the Soviet Union took the position that no territorial issue existed between the two countries. See Note 4.

See Note 14. It was expressed in the Japan–Soviet Joint Communiqué (April 1991).

Ibid.

Ibid.

See Note 4. For more information, see Zagorski (2001) and Okuyama (2003).

Ibid.

The Japanese government's basic position can be found in “Overview of the Issue of the Northern Territories.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/europe/russia/territory/overview.html (accessed April 29, 2012). For more information, see Hara (2008, 71–92), Kimura (2008), Kimura and David (1998), and Hara and Jukes (2009).

“Takeshima—Return Our Islands and Our Sea!” Shimane Prefectural Government, http://www.pref.shimane.lg.jp/soumu/takesima_eng/take9.html (accessed April 29, 2012).

See Note 7.

Ibid. This Article restricted the definition of Japanese territory as comprising the main islands and undetermined “minor islands.”

In 1946 and 1952, the definition of the territory of Japan was revised to include additional small islands.

The Japanese government's basic position is shown in “The Issue of Takeshima.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/takeshima/index.html (accessed April 29, 2012). For more information, see Hara (2007, 23–48).

“The Basic View on the Sovereignty over the Senkaku Islands.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/senkaku/senkaku.html (accessed April 29, 2012). For more information, see Hara (2007, 158–84).

Ibid.

“Japan–U.S. Security Treaty.” The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/n-america/us/q&a/ref/1.html (accessed April 29, 2012).

“Japan–U.S. Status Forces Agreement.” Ibid., http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/usa/sfa/pdfs/fulltext.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012).

As of March 2011. Ministry of Defence of Japan, http://www.mod.go.jp/j/approach/zaibeigun/us_sisetsu/sennyousisetumennseki.html [Japanese only] (accessed April 29, 2012).

In addition, US Forces have Air Spaces/Water Areas Used for their Training. For more information about US Forces in Okinawa, “U.S. Military Base Issues in Okinawa, June 13, 2011.” Okinawa Prefecture, http://www3.pref.okinawa.jp/site/contents/attach/24600/2011.6%20Eng.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012).

In addition, Kanagawa and Nagasaki prefectural government also demand the return of the US Forces Facilities.

For more information, See Note 34 “U.S. Military Base Issues,” p. 24.

Koo labels Takeshima as Dokto and the Sea of Japan as the East Sea in his article.

For more information about the Agreement between Japan and the People's Republic of China on Fishing, see Xue, 2004.

“Annual Report on the Developments in the Fisheries in FY 2004.” Fishery Agency of Japan, http://www.maff.go.jp/e/pdf/fy2004.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012), p. 26.

“United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982.” United Nations, http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part8.htm (accessed April 29, 2012).

Yaeyama Mainichi Simbun, May 25, 2010, http://www.y-mainichi.co.jp/news/16042/ [Japanese only] (accessed April 29, 2012).

Taipei Times, June 26, 2010, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2010/06/26/2003476438 (accessed April 29, 2012).

“Koku Kotsu Kansei [Air Traffic Control].” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/usa/sfa/kyoutei/pdfs/06_01a.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012), author's translation.

Ibid.

“Okinawa ni okeru Koku Kotsu Kansei [Okinawa Air Traffic Control Agreement].” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/usa/sfa/kyoutei/pdfs/06_05.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012), author's translation.

“Koku Kotsu Kansei (Kaisei) [Air Taffic Control: Revised].” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/area/usa/sfa/kyoutei/pdfs/06_01b.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012), author's translation.

“Kadena RAPCON reverts to Japanese control.” Kadena Air Base News, 2010.4.2, http://www.kadena.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123198022 (accessed April 29, 2012). For more information, “U.S. Military Issues in Okinawa.” Okinawa Prefectural Government, http://www3.pref.okinawa.jp/site/contents/attach/7005/pamphlet(English).pdf (accessed April 29, 2012), p. 22.

“Promoting Civil-Military Dual-Use of Yokota Air Base.” Tokyo Metropolitan Government, http://www.chijihon.metro.tokyo.jp/kiti/english/09Oct_English.pdf (accessed April 29, 2012), p. 9.

See Note 7.