ATSEA: A Regional Collaboration to Address Transboundary Threats to Ecosystems for Human Well-Being in the Arafura and Timor Seas

Abstract

The Arafura and Timor Seas (ATS) are home to a wealth of both living and non-living marine resources, including major fisheries, significant oil and gas reserves, extensive coastal and marine habitats, and globally-significant populations of migratory, rare, threatened, and endangered marine species. These resources provide goods and services valued at more than US$7.3B to neighboring nations, annually. The waters of the ATS are bounded by Indonesia, Timor-Leste, Papua New Guinea and Australia; and significantly, are defined as a ‘semi-enclosed seas’ under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). UNCLOS places a responsibility and an obligation on countries bordering enclosed and semi-enclosed seas to cooperate in resource management, the protection of the marine environment and marine scientific research. Recent assessments indicate that the marine environment in the ATS region is in serious decline, primarily as a result of over-harvesting and other direct and indirect impacts of anthropogenic stresses and global climate change. Transboundary issues such as unsustainable and illegal fishing activities, marine and land-based pollution, marine habitat and biodiversity decline, and climate change negatively impact fishery resources, ecosystem quality, and human well-being. Over the past 2 decades ATS littoral countries have progressed toward transboundary management of the region. This paper elaborates on the current status and threats to coastal and marine resources in the ATS region and in particular, the major efforts of the four littoral ATS countries to address transboundary environmental issues at the regional, national, and project site levels through the US$9.7M, 5-year, UN GEF-funded ATSEA-2 program. A key result of the ATSEA Program is regional collaboration that supports stakeholder engagement for meaningful resource management and protection is essential for the sustainable use and development of marine resources in the ATS.

Keywords:

• Arafura and Timor Seas
• ATSEA
• stakeholder engagement
• transboundary issues

Introduction

In the vast expanse where the Indian and Pacific Oceans meet, lies the Arafura and Timor Seas (ATS: Figure 1). Shared by Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea (PNG), and Timor-Leste, this region is home to a wealth of both, living and non-living marine resources, including major fisheries, extensive oil and gas reserves, and important international shipping routes. Spanning 167 million hectares, the ATS region hosts thriving marine and coastal ecosystems that provide invaluable services to its neighboring nations (ATSEA 2023). With an estimated value of US$7.3 billion per year, these services encompass fisheries, support for mariculture industries, storage and sequestration of carbon in ‘blue carbon’ coastal ecosystems, cultural heritage, and unique destinations for rapidly-growing marine and coastal tourism sector (Choesin et al. 2021). With the economic dependence and importance of the ‘shared’ living and non-living resources of the ATS, the sustainability and effective transboundary, regional management of the ATS region has remained a critical priority for the four nations bordering this region (UNEP 2003, Vantier et al. 2005; ATSEA 2012a). The waters of the ATS are defined as ‘semi-enclosed seas’ under Article 122 of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). UNCLOS places a responsibility and an obligation on countries bordering enclosed and semi-enclosed seas to cooperate in resource management, the protection of the marine environment and marine scientific research (Article 123).

Figure 1. Map of ATS region, including ATSEA-2 field sites in 3 countries and MPAs in 2 sites.

The ATS boasts diverse coastal and marine habitats and globally-significant marine biodiversity. The coastal regions of Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Australia host the highest level of mangrove diversity with 45, 44 and 41 species recorded, respectively (Spalding, Kainuma, and Collins 2010). It also encompasses various seagrass beds with up to 15 species recorded in Australian waters and 11 in Indonesian waters (Alongi et al. 2011). These habitats are critical for supporting migratory, rare, threatened, and endangered marine species, such as nesting colonies of shorebirds and seabirds, cetaceans, dugongs, sharks and rays, turtles, and sea snakes. The green, hawksbill, and leatherback turtles are the most commonly found marine turtles in ATS, which are classified as among the most endangered species of the CITES (ATSEA 2023).

Significantly, the semi-enclosed seas, gulfs and shallow continental shelf waters of the ATS are characterized by pronounced ecological connectivity in oceanographic processes and living marine resources, particularly pelagic species. This connectivity highlights the critical need for transboundary management of ocean resources and threats in the ATS, particularly of ‘shared fisheries’, pollution impacts and migratory marine species.

Large-scale, regional assessments indicate that the marine ecosystems in the ATS region are in serious decline, primarily as a result of over-harvesting, pollution and other direct and indirect impacts of anthropogenic stresses and global climate changes (UNEP 2003, Vantier et al. 2005; ATSEA 2012, 2023). Particularly, transboundary threats such as unsustainable and illegal fishing activities, marine and land-based pollution, marine habitat and biodiversity decline, and climate change which are negatively impacting fishery resources, ecosystem quality, and human well-being (Morrison and Delaney 1996; Alongi et al. 2011; Wirasantosa et al. 2011; ATSEA 2012). These threats are exacerbated by drivers such as rapid human population and economic growth, including consumption patterns, and labor markets; high coastal resource dependency, food insecurity and poverty alleviation; weak institutions and poor governance, and region-specific trends such as land supply, land rights claims, views on the environment, regional development policy, demographic and labor market changes (Stacey et al. 2011; Tengberg et al. 2012; ATSEA 2012a).

Over the past 2 decades, and in line with commitments under UNCLOS, ATS littoral countries (with support from the United Nations), have progressed toward transboundary management of the ATS region. Efforts to foster and progress regional cooperation in the ATS region began with formal discussions at the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002. And was followed in 2003 with the establishment of the Arafura Timor Sea Experts Forum (ATSEF) and a Regional Secretariat by Australia, Indonesia and Timor-Leste. Concurrently, at the country-level ATSEF National Secretariats were also established in Indonesia (by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries), Timor-Leste (by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries) and Australia (by the Department of Environment and Heritage).

ATSEF comprises key marine experts and government/non-government institutions from ATS countries, and from 2002, provided a major forum for a range of cooperative coastal and marine research, training and development partnership activities and programs. Following the success of these individual activities, in 2006 ATSEF began the project design of a major framework for regional ecosystem-based management of the ATS region, the first Arafura and Timor Seas Ecosystem Action (ATSEA) project, for funding by the Global Environment Facility (GEF).

With finance from the GEF and technical support from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS), the first phase of the 5-year ATSEA Project (ATSEA-1) was implemented from 2010 to 2014, with Indonesia and Timor-Leste as GEF beneficiaries and Australia as a supporting country, while PNG served as an observer. With a US$2.5 million grant from GEF and additional co-financing of US$6.7 million, ATSEA-1 laid the foundations for regional cooperation and the transboundary management of the ATS region. Its primary objectives included the development of the first Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) (ATSEA 2012a), an ecosystem assessment to identify priority transboundary environmental issues and concerns (and their key causes and drivers); and the first Regional Strategic Action Program (SAP) (ATSEA 2012b) (2014–2024) to identify strategic actions to address these priority concerns, together with complementary National Action Programs (NAPs) for Indonesia (ATSEA 2013) and Timor-Leste (ATSEA 2012c). In 2014, an inter-Ministerial Declaration, endorsed by the 4 ATS littoral countries, formalized the adoption of the ATS SAP, formalizing a commitment to its implementation – and significantly, a multilateral commitment to progressing regional management of the ATS region.

ATSEA-2 project

Building upon the success of ATSEA-1, the second phase of the ATSEA program or ATSEA-2 Project commenced in 2019, following five years of comprehensive preparation and approval. Like ATSEA-1, ATSEA-2 is financed by the GEF and supported by UNDP, but also, Philippines-based, Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA). The project beneficiaries are Indonesia, Timor-Leste and Papua New Guinea, while Australia provides support to project implementation. Reflecting its stronger focus on implementation activities, the 5-year ATSEA-2 project received a GEF grant of US$9.7 million and a co-financing commitment of more than US$60 million and will be concluded at the end of 2024.

The ATSEA-2 Project was primarily designed to implement the regional ATS SAP, through strengthening regional governance mechanism, supporting policies and capacities of institutions and individuals in the participating countries, and implementing priority actions to address the five-priority transboundary environmental problems identified by the ATS TDA, namely:

1. Unsustainable fisheries and decline and loss of living coastal and marine resources;

2. Marine and land-based pollution;

3. Modification, degradation and loss of coastal and marine habitats;

4. Decline and loss of threatened and migratory species; and

5. Impacts of climate change on the ATS.

ATSEA-2 recognizes the central importance of fostering sustainable development of the ATS region, as articulated in the vision of the ATS SAP - ‘to promote sustainable development of the Arafura-Timor Seas region to improve the quality of life of its inhabitants through restoration, conservation and sustainable management of marine-coastal ecosystems’ (ATSEA 2012b). Similarly, reflecting the 5 identified transboundary environmental concerns in the ATS, ATSEA-2 objectives and activities have been designed to achieve the following five medium-term environmental quality objectives:

1. Recovering and sustaining fisheries;

2. Reducing land-based and marine sources of pollution;

3. Restoring degraded habitats for sustainable provision of ecosystem services;

4. Protecting key marine species;

5. Adapting to the impacts of climate change

Within this Special Issue of the Coastal Management, ATSEA-2 would like to start by presenting the unique characterization of the region’s coastal and marine ecosystems. The first article (Edyvane et al. this issue) elucidates how the ATS region is characterized by ecological connectivity, diverse bathymetry, and seascapes shaped by seasonal upwellings driven by monsoons, supporting rich food webs and global biodiversity hotspots, making it a refuge for endangered marine megafauna. Enhanced comprehension of the coastal and marine ecosystems in the region, along with the identification of current knowledge gaps, is imperative for conducting future ecosystem assessments and formulating contextually relevant management strategies.

Subsequently, the Special Issue will present some of its key project activities and results, which aim to in strengthen sustainable development and regional management of the ATS region. And especially its efforts to address priority transboundary environmental issues and achieve environmental quality objectives - particularly for ATSEA-2 project sites. These project sites include: Rote Ndao of the East Nusa Tenggara Province, Merauke of the South Papua Province, and Aru Tenggara of the Maluku Province in Indonesia; South Fly District of the Western Province in Papua New Guinea; and municipalities of Covalima, Manufahi, Manatuto, Viqueque and Lautem in Timor-Leste (Figure 1). In addition to activities at project sites, the Special Issue also showcase ATSEA-2’s progress toward establishing a regional governance mechanism (RGM) to strengthen regional cooperation among the ATS countries, and also, extensive stakeholder engagement to support regional, national and local initiatives.

Addressing priority environmental issues and achieving environmental quality objectives

Recovering and sustaining fisheries

As an important shared fisheries in the ATS region and source of income and livelihoods, the sustainability and transboundary management of the snapper fisheries has been a major focus of activity for the ATSEA-2 Project. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics in 2021, the ATS region accounted for 2.76% or 13,604 tons of the estimated global Lutjanid (snapper) catch in 2019, primarily from Indonesia and Australia. Notably, Indonesia is the biggest snapper exporter, and its catch has steadily increased in recent years (Knuckey et al. 2022).

Recognizing the importance of the snapper fishery in the region, ATSEA-2 is actively working to improve transboundary fisheries management for red snapper, focusing on: saddletail snapper (Lutjanus malabaricus), crimson snapper (L. erythropterus), red emperor (L. sebae) and goldband snapper (Pristipomoides multidens). These four species were selected as management targets due to their prominence as the most frequently landed species within the region. A baseline review conducted by ATSEA-2 in 2020–2021 showed the diversity of snapper fisheries in the ATS, encompassing both small and industrial scales. The stock status of these species varies, with Australia’s stock considered sustainable, Indonesia’s overfished, while the status for both Timor-Leste and Papua New Guinea is undefined. The identified threats to these fisheries include issues on stock sustainability, ecological impacts of fishing operations, bycatch, transboundary conflict, conflict between sectors, lack of infrastructure and market access, policies supporting rights-based management of small-scale fisheries, illegal, unreported and unrecorded (IUU) fishing, as well as lack of consistent/unified data across the region (Knuckey et al. 2021).

To improve sustainability, the ATSEA-2 has also adopted an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM), carrying out capacity building on EAFM, and significantly, developed an EAFM plan for the red snapper fishery for the ATS region (Knuckey et al. 2022). At the national level, ATSEA-2 supported the Indonesian government on the development of a national management plan for snapper and grouper fisheries (Marine Affairs and Fisheries Ministerial (MMAF) Decree No. 123 Year 2021 on Snapper and Grouper Fisheries Management Plan) and specific EAFM plans for red snapper and shrimp in Aru, and for barramundi cod (grouper) in Merauke, as well as the updating of the Fisheries Management Area (FMA) Plan for FMA 718 or the Arafura Sea which is the main fishing ground for red snapper in Indonesia. In addition to EAFM plans, ATSEA-2 has also worked with fishing companies operating in the Arafura Sea to improve sustainability through Fisheries Improvement Programs (FIPs), resulting in 16 companies receiving an A + score for sustainable practices (YKAN 2022). In Timor-Leste, an EAFM plan for red snapper fishery on the Southern Coast was developed (Fishwell Consulting 2021) and adopted, and subsequently, a national fishery advisory council was established to oversee the implementation of the plan. In Papua New Guinea’s South Fly District of the Western Province, an unprecedented community-based fisheries management plan called the Fore Coast Artisanal Fisheries Management Plan (Mitchell et al. 2022) was developed. This plan was formalized in the form of a Local-Level Government Bill enacted on 9 April 2024, thereby becoming Papua New Guinea’s first fisheries management law at the local government level. These processes were undertaken to institutionalize ecosystem-based approaches in fisheries management, of which there are few examples from developing countries (Christie et al. 2007). The Fore Coast Artisanal Fisheries Management Plan was formulated by recognizing the rights and practices of coastal communities, aligning with the regional strategy to scale up rights-based fisheries management (Fox et al. 2021). To raise awareness about this initiative, ATSEA-2 organized a regional exchange in Darwin, Australia, involving government and local community representatives from Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Timor-Leste to learn about practices to recognize indigenous rights in the Australian fishing industry (Knuckey and McShane 2023).

As the red snapper fishery in the Indonesian waters of the ATS region is less sustainable compared to the other ATS countries, ATSEA-2 has also directed its effort to understanding the current red snapper stock status in the Fisheries Management Area (FMA) 718 or the Arafura Sea. The project is also working to improve fishery sustainability in FMA 718 by facilitating EAFM implementation and a FIP in Aru Archipelago District. The second article (Kasim et al. 2024) presents some results of this work in FMA 718, including a comprehensive analysis of daily landing data, catch composition, length and weight of hundreds of individual fish samples, fishing gear characteristics and socio-economics data for saddletail snapper fishery and providing recommendations for improving that fishery status and management.

Within the ATS region, illegal fishing remains a persistent issue. With a recent FAO-funded study by Wilcox et al. (2021) confirmed that the ATS region remains a major hotspot for illegal fishing. While the ATS countries share a common goal in combatting IUU fishing under the RPOA-IUU Fishing, and regional cooperation on IUU fishing is improving – countries have vastly different law enforcement priorities, resources, abilities and capacities. Hence, the third article of this Special Issue (Afriansyah et al. this issue) provides a much-needed estimate of avoided loss due to illegal fishing in the ATS region over the period 2016 -2019. Evidence and information on the economic impact of illegal fishing can provide powerful incentives for countries to evaluate and strengthen fisheries compliance and resource allocations in combatting illegal fishing.

Reducing marine and land-based pollution

The waters of the semi-enclosed ATS region continue to be a major hotspot for marine and land-based pollution. Between 2020 and 2021, ATSEA-2 undertook an assessment to identify some of the marine and land-based sources of pollution in the northern waters of the ATS region (Shin 2021a). The fourth article featured in this Special Issue (Shin et al. this issue) focuses on two major transboundary pollution threats in the ATS region: oil spills and marine debris, including identifying hotspots, and also providing recommendations to enhance regional policies, regulations i.e., ratification of International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC 90) and development of a Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan, (ROSCP) and also, capacities to address those two transboundary pollution threats.

The findings from the regional pollution assessment were further supported by local studies conducted in ATSEA-2 project sites. In Indonesia, an interview survey with 643 residents from 14 villages in Rote Ndao District showed that a majority of the coastal residents perceive oil spills from offshore oil rig platforms and marine debris as the primary pollution sources in the district (Shin 2021b). The community’s view on pollution and their experience of the devastating impacts of the Montara oil spill incident (Shin 2021b) led the East Nusa Tenggara Province government, with ATSEA-2’s assistance, to establish a marine pollution task force (NTT Governor Decree No.260/2021) and develop its 3-year action plan. In Timor-Leste, as part of its national pollution assessment, a transect walk was conducted in four municipalities (i.e., Viqueque, Manatuto, Manufahi and Covalima) to identify marine debris hotspots. The survey covered 32.5 km of coastline and collected 54.7 kg of waste, primarily plastics and fishing gear/nets from the inshore and offshore fishing (Fonseca and Spiller 2021).

In response to the findings from the ATS pollution assessments, ATSEA-2 provided support to build national and local capacities in oil spill preparedness and response (OSPR). This includes the conduct of quarterly webinar series, regional exchange on OSPR, and trainings at the local level throughout 2022. In NTT, Indonesia, Guidance on early warning system (EWS) and oil spill monitoring and sampling were developed in 2023, followed by the conduct of EWS simulation and socialization. Several trainings related to marine debris were also provided to enable the local communities, especially women, to generate economic value by producing handicrafts from plastic waste. To ensure a holistic approach to local-scale pollution management, pollution prevention and control plans were developed as part of the Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) process in Rote Ndao, Indonesia and Manatuto, Timor-Leste.

Restoring degraded habitats for sustainable provision of ecosystem services

Valuation of ecosystem goods and services and improved habitat protection (particularly through new and more effective, existing Marine Protected Areas) have been major successful activities under ATSEA-2, to support the protection and restoration of habitats in the ATS region. A regional ecosystem valuation was carried out in 2020 (Choesin et al. 2021) to determine the economic value of primary habitats and marine resources of the region. The study showed that the ATS region contributes approximately USD 7.3 billion annually to the economies of ATS countries. In 2021, similar studies were conducted in Indonesia to estimate the Total Economic Value of mangrove ecosystems surrounding the Kolepom Island in Merauke, South Papua Province which was IDR 535.6 billion (or USD 37.5 million) per year (Handayani 2021a) and Southeast Aru Tenggara MPA which was IDR 231 billion (or USD 16.2 million) per year (Handayani 2021b). The studies supported the updating of the region’s profile of ecosystem assets and connectivity, as well as the assessment of prevailing and emerging pressures.

Effective Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been adopted by ATSEA-2 as a primary tool to address the degradation of habitats and maintenance of ecosystem services. As such, ATSEA-2 focused on the improvement of management effectiveness of two existing MPAs: (1) Southeast Aru MPA in Maluku Province of Indonesia, which was established in 2009 and covers 114,000 ha (Marine Affairs and Fisheries Ministerial Decree No. 63 Year 2009 on Southeast Aru MPA establishment), and (2) Nino Konis Santana National Park in Timor-Leste, which was established in 2007 and covers 123,600 ha (McIntyre 2015) (Figure 1) by using two tools: EVIKA and METT.

EVIKA (Evaluasi Efektivitas Pengelolaan Kawasan Konservasi - Evaluation of Conservation Area Management Effectiveness) is a tool developed by Indonesian Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries to measure the management effectiveness of MPAs. If the final score is <50%, then it means that the MPA is minimally managed, 50–85% is optimum, while >85% means the MPA is sustainably managed. While the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool or METT is the commonest Protected Area Management Effectiveness tool, used in more than 2,500 protected areas covering more than 4.2 million km² in at least 127 countries. The tool was originally developed by the World Bank/WWF Alliance for Forest Conservation and Sustainable Use and published in 2002 (https://rris.biopama.org/node/20639). From a study facilitated by National Coordination Unit (NCU) of Indonesia, a METT score of 70 is equivalent to 75% for EVIKA.

In Southeast Aru MPA, ATSEA-2 organized a biodiversity survey in 2020 (Handayani et al. 2021c), capacity building program, and proposed a re-zonation design in 2021 (Handayani 2021d). Through ATSEA-2’s interventions, EVIKA score of South East Aru MPA improved from 30% in 2019 to 58% in 2022 (Handayani 2023), and to 72.47% in 2023. In Nino Konis Santana, ATSEA-2 assisted in the development of a draft socio-economic, biophysical and sustainable financing plan report together with the updating of MPA management plan (Welly et al. 2022). A METT assessment was also completed in 2023 which showed a 91% improvement in METT score compared to the 2019 status, from a score of 24 to 46.

In support of national priorities to expand MPA coverage in the ATS region, ATSEA-2 is also providing continuous support to the establishment of new MPAs, particularly in (1) Kolepom Island in Indonesia, and (2) Manufahi and Manatuto on the Southern coast of Timor-Leste (Figure 1). Following a series of assessments, spatial planning, socialization and coordination processes under ATSEA-2 since 2019, the Kolepom Island MPA was formally established on 5 January 2023 (Marine Affairs and Fisheries Ministerial Decree No. 5 Year 2023 on Kolepom Island MPA establishment). Covering 356,337.09 ha with three zones (i.e., core, utilization and others), this landmark achievement marks the first MPA in the recently established Indonesian South Papua Province. In Manufahi, Timor-Leste, ATSEA-2 supported the conduct of a Marine Rapid Assessment/marine ecological, biophysical and socio-economic survey (Marine Change 2022) including public consultation (Coral Triangle Center 2022a) and the drafting of the management plan for the proposed new MPA (Coral Triangle Center 2022b). The draft zoning and management plan continues to undergo further review and validation, with an additional survey to expand the initial design to Manatuto which will be conducted in 2023. The final hectare coverage proposed for the new MPA in Manufahi and Manatuto is 51,000 ha. ATSEA-2 continues to support further processes leading to a Ministerial Decree to formalize the new MPA in Timor-Leste.

A major highlight of the ATSEA-2 ocean conservation and marine habitat protection activities has been its significant efforts to establish a regional, ATS-wide network of Marine Protected Areas. To support further expansion and coverage of important biodiversity seascapes at the regional scale, a regional MPA network design for the ATS region was developed by conducting a marine gap analysis between 2020 and 2021. The design was subsequently endorsed by the four ATS countries in June 2022. The marine gap analysis for an ATS MPA network is described in detail in Article five of this Special Issue (Fajariyanto et al. this issue).

Protecting key marine species

Under the ATSEA-2 program, the conservation and protection of sea turtles in the ATS has been a major focus of activity for key marine species. The ATS region hosts six species of sea turtles – green, hawksbill, loggerhead, olive ridley, leatherback, and flatback turtles. Unfortunately, these species have been categorized as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered, necessitating protection via national legislation and international conventions. To boost sea turtle conservation, ATSEA-2 facilitated the development and endorsement of the Sea Turtle Regional Action Plan which acts as reference/guidance for ATS countries to conserve their sea turtles. The action plan has six themes: (1) addressing discards of fishing gear, (2) establishing a funding mechanism, (3) addressing sea turtle bycatch in the Arafura Sea prawn fishery, (4) enhancing the conservation of sea turtles in Timor-Leste, (5) in Indonesia with a focus on Aru and (6) in Papua New Guinea (Pilcher and Welly 2022). To enhance community capability in managing community-based sea turtle conservation programs, ATSEA-2 facilitated a regional exchange in collaboration with the Turtle Conservation and Education Center, a facility focused on research, education, and rehabilitation efforts aimed at promoting the conservation of sea turtles in Bali, Indonesia (Triani, Tania, and Susanto 2023).

In parallel, at the country-level (particularly in Indonesia and Timor-Leste), sustainable alternative livelihood initiatives to support sea turtle protection and conservation have been integrated within the ICM implementation in Rote Ndao, Indonesia, and Posto Administrativo Barique, Timor-Leste (see below). Community-based surveillance programs have also been supported under ATSEA-2. In Aru Archipelago, Indonesia, Endangered, Threatened and Protected (ETP) species protection and surveillance were improved through the establishment of two community-based surveillance groups. While in Com Village (within the Nino Konis Santana National Park, Timor-Leste), a community-based conservation group mainly consisting of women conducted a sea turtle monitoring and conservation program (Suprapti 2022).

Adapting to the impacts of climate change

ATSEA-2 is committed to improving understanding of climate change impacts on marine and coastal ecosystems and improving the resilience of local coastal communities. In pursuit of this goal, ATSEA-2 facilitated a regional Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment (CCVA) in 2020 (Johnson et al. 2023a). The climate projections for the ATS region (i.e., sea surface temperature, pH, rain volume) are based on the outputs of global climate models on the moderate-emissions scenario RCP4.5 and high-emissions scenario RCP8.5 for 2070 (Johnson et al. 2023a).

Regional results of the vulnerability assessment for habitats were spatially variable. Shallow coral reefs are highly vulnerable to climate change, particularly around Manatuto and Manufahi Municipalities, Timor-Leste and Tual, Indonesia. Seagrass meadows were most vulnerable in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia where sea surface temperature increases more rapidly than elsewhere. Lastly, mangroves and estuarine habitats were most vulnerable in Timor-Leste and western Papua New Guinea (Johnson et al. 2023a).

Species vulnerability was also spatially variable, with highly vulnerable and high priority species identified for each sub-region (i.e., Indonesia-Arafura, Timor-Leste, Western PNG, Gulf of Carpentaria and Northwest Australia). Across most sub-regions, green turtles identified as a high priority for conservation and protection as they are the most likely to be affected by the climate changes. Meanwhile dugong, barramundi, black jewfish, Spanish mackerel and mud crab were identified as highly vulnerable in at least 2 sub-regions (Johnson et al. 2023a).

ATSEA-2 also developed a Climate Change Guide for Decision Makers and Facilitators (the Guide) based on the CCVA conducted for the region to enable local communities to use the results to develop a climate action plan (Johnson et al. 2023b). The Guide was tested out in Oeseli Village, Rote Ndao, Indonesia and resulted in a community action plan that was developed through a facilitated, participatory process (Kertabumi Institute and C2O Pacific 2021).

By testing the Guide, it was discovered that the regional CCVA can be localized for practical use within communities and is effective at facilitating a community-driven or bottom-up planning process. Although community actions often target present challenges caused by various factors like overexploitation and development, it is crucial to factor in climate change’s role in worsening these issues. The Guide offers a means to integrate climate and non-climate pressures, addressing both types of concerns simultaneously (Johnson 2022). The Guide includes 5 (five) steps to link climate change vulnerability to local threats, identify adaptation actions that address the main drivers of vulnerability, and to develop a Community Action Plan. It also provides an overview of the main elements of successful implementation of the Community Action Plan including awareness and education, enforcement, monitoring and review.

Following the case study development, a training workshop on climate change was also conducted for ATS stakeholders in 2022. This was carefully aligned with ATSEA-2’s commitment to raising climate change awareness in the region. The training workshop was attended by 18 participants from Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Timor-Leste with speakers from the four ATS countries (Kertabumi Institute and C2O Pacific 2022).

Moreover, ATSEA-2 adopted the ICM approach to foster holistic and climate-resilient management of coastal areas (Tobey et al. 2010) in two key sites: Rote Ndao District, Indonesia (Prabuning, Nasution, and Anzar 2022) and Posto Administrative Barique, Timor-Leste (Fonseca et al. 2022). Covering a total of 347 km of coastline, these ICM programs support various local initiatives including the promotion of climate change adaptation and ecosystem-based approach as part of alternative livelihood efforts. In Rote Ndao, an ICM Policy Framework document was developed to guide community actions and support alternative livelihood trainings (i.e., seaweed soap production and essential oil) and restoration activities (i.e., coral restoration). In Barique, ATSEA-2 facilitated the completion of an ICM implementation plan and the establishment of ICM coordination mechanism with active engagement and support from local stakeholders. Additionally, several alternative livelihood trainings (e.g., sustainable aquaculture, plastic recycling, basic cooperatives) and restoration activities (e.g., tree planting) were conducted.

Strengthening regional and national governance mechanisms

Building on the institutional and governance arrangements outlined in the 2014 ATS Ministerial Declaration, ATSEA-2 has undertaken significant efforts to strengthen regional and national governance and also, facilitate broader stakeholder participation in the management of the marine and coastal resources in the ATS.

Since June 2020, ATSEA-2 has coordinated a participatory process across the four ATS countries on the design and establishment of a regional governance mechanism (RGM) that will effectively and efficiently support and help coordinate the implementation of the ATS SAP and NAPs and the updated strategies at the regional and national level. The development of a suitable ATS RGM involved a systematic series of steps and consultations. It began with a regional governance assessment and the creation of initial RGM models (Pet-Soede 2021). Subsequent phases included reviewing, refining, and selecting from various RGM model options, as well as conducting a cost-benefit analysis of two viable options (Ebarvia 2023). Through series of national and regional consultations, the ATS countries endorsed an agreed RGM model in the Regional Steering Committee (RSC) Meeting in July 2023.

Significantly, in support of the long-term regional and strategic collaboration envisioned under the broader goal of the ATSEA program, ATSEA-2 facilitated the updating of the ATS SAP and NAPs which will guide regional and national actions in the ATS region over the next decade. Prior to that, ATSEA-2 facilitated a preliminary SAP (2014–2023) stocktaking with the following findings: Indonesia, Timor-Leste, and Papua New Guinea have made notable efforts in implementing the ATS SAP, with varying levels of achievement in different environmental and governance objectives. Australia, although lacking a specific NAP, contributes to the SAP’s goals through national actions.

Further, the updated SAP built on the scientific information and the current and emerging priority transboundary environmental concerns in the region identified in the updated ATS Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) 2023 (ATSEA 2023). Accomplishments from ATSEA-2 were also considered in the updated SAP, including the local regulations adopted to support ICM, MPA, pollution and sustainable fisheries management. The CCVA and the Guide, as well as the Regional Gender Equity and Social Inclusion (GESI) Action Plan (ATSEA 2022) also guided the integration of climate change and GESI concerns in the updated SAP and NAPs, as well as in the planning and decision-making processes of the RGM.

To ensure the operationalization of RGM, detailed operational arrangements and a financing strategy and plan were developed. Similarly, financing plans were established for the SAP and NAPs to ensure their implementation. An ATS SAP Monitoring System was also developed to monitor progress, outcomes, and impacts of implementing the updated SAP and NAPs. Additionally, a Transition Plan was created to facilitate the shift from project-based arrangements under ATSEA-2 to a long-term program-based coordination mechanism. This transition is crucial for the sustainability of the ATSEA program and is expected to occur after the official acceptance and introduction of the updated SAP and NAPs, along with the establishment of the RGM with more permanent regional and national secretariats (Figure 2), which will be formalized through a new Ministerial Declaration in 2024.

Figure 2. The agreed RGM structure.

Stakeholder engagement

Multistakeholder engagement is instrumental in ensuring the success and effectiveness of the ATSEA-2 interventions. Since the project’s inception in 2019, ATSEA-2 has promoted inclusivity and ownership, by actively involving stakeholders from various sectors from local to international level in the conduct of technical surveys and assessments, development of plans (i.e., EAFM, ICM, MPA plans) awareness and outreach activities, capacity building and knowledge sharing, and monitoring.

In the span of four years, ATSEA-2 convened and co-organized over 200 learning events at local to international levels, produced and released over 160 Technical publications, and continues to contribute to the GEF IW Portfolio Bulletin. To further capture and disseminate ATS information, an ATS Journalist Network has been formed and several media visits were conducted. In terms of online outreach, more than 40,000 individuals have been reached. To further secure and share ATS information, efforts on integration with PEMSEA’s SEA Knowledge Bank and Coral Triangle Atlas are completed.

In all these efforts, ATSEA-2 reached and supported more than 83,000 individuals on various levels of engagement, with an emphasis to carry out the commitment to promoting gender equity and social inclusion (Table 1).

Table 1. Stakeholder engagement in various ATSEA-2 activities (as of May 2024).

Gender	Various engagements	Capacity building	Livelihoods
Female	36,996	1,548	2,327
Male	43,364	2,518	2,724
Non-sex-disaggregated	4,419	270	179
TOTAL	84,779	4,336	5,230

Note: Capacity Building/Training: EAFM, ICM, MCS/fisheries intelligence, MPA management, climate change, rights-based fishery management, sea turtle protection, alternative livelihood support. Livelihood training/support: sustainable aquaculture, seaweed soapmaking, VCO coffee making, plastic recycling, resilient home gardens, business and financial management, mangrove and coastal restoration, river bank stabilization. Data under capacity building and livelihoods is included in total engagement counts

Conclusion

The ATSEA Program has implemented an ambitious set of activities to meet its five environmental objectives and one governance objective and to support sustainable use and development of the marine coastal resources within the semi-enclosed ATS region. Dedicated efforts drive fisheries recovery through EAFM plans, partnerships with fishing industry, and community-based management. Marine and land-based pollution hotspots were identified and capacity building on OSPR was conducted. For improving critical habitat quality and protecting sea turtles, the project enhanced existing MPA management effectiveness, established new ones, and developed a regional MPA network and Sea Turtle Regional Action Plan. Climate resilience was fortified through CCVA, a tailored guide, and ICM programs. Lastly, governance mechanisms, including RGM development and SAP and NAP updates, are supported by financing strategies, affirming commitment to ATS region’s challenges. These represent a massive undertaking given the size and complexity of the area.

The brief summaries of the ATSEA Program in this paper and the other more in-depth papers of this Special Issue of Coastal Management provide a current and informative perspective on the status of the resources in ATS and the management actions that are underway or planned for the future. They also highlight some of the major issues, such as countries’ involvement due to the intricate governance of the ATS, as well as the insufficient ongoing resources and capabilities. These issues must be addressed for sustainability of resource use to be achieved and the commitment of the member governments, their local governments and communities is essential for success.

Acknowledgments

This paper was prepared as part of the UNDP/PEMSEA ATSEA-2 Project, generously funded by the Global Environment Facility. The authors express their gratitude to country representatives from the four Arafura and Timor Seas, UNDP and PEMSEA for their great contributions. Special thanks are extended to the anonymous reviewers for their thorough review. Lastly, the authors extend their sincere appreciation to Dr. Alan White, Dr. Alison Green and Prof. Karen Edyvane for their invaluable assistance in finalizing the paper.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

GEF/UNDP ATSEA-2 Project.