A comparative evaluation of the immunotoxicity and immunomodulatory effects on macrophages exposed to aromatic trihalogenated DBPs

Abstract

Objective: 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP), 2,4,6-tribromophenol (TBP), and 2,4,6-triiodophenol (TIP) are three aromatic halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) identified in chlorinated saline effluents. This study aimed to evaluate and compare their immunotoxicity and immunomodulatory effects on macrophages.

Materials and methods: CCK-8 assay was used to evaluate cytotoxicity of TCP, TBP, and TIP in mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cells. A light microscope and digital camera were used to record the morphological changes of RAW264.7 cells. qRT-PCR was used to measure the mRNA levels of polarization markers and secreted cytokines. Cytokine production was also detected by ELISA. Flow cytometry was performed to analyze the expression of M1 and M2 markers on macrophages.

Results: TCP, TBP, and TIP had different cytotoxic effects on macrophages. The rank order of cytotoxicity was TIP > TBP > TCP. Furthermore, the three halogenated DBPs displayed different preferences for macrophage polarization. Intriguingly, 200 μM TIP remarkably induced the M2-dominant polarization of macrophages, while 200 μM TCP induced an M1-dominant polarization of macrophages. TBP has a moderate ability in inducing M1 and M2 polarization compared with TCP and TIP.

Conclusions: TIP displayed higher cytotoxicity against macrophages than TBP and TCP, its brominated and chlorinated analogs. Since M1 and M2 macrophages facilitate the inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses, respectively, the discrepancy of TCP, TBP, and TIP in inducing macrophage polarization may lead to distinct immunomodulatory and toxicological outcomes, thus giving rise to different types of diseases. This finding may provide novel insights into evaluating the toxicity of environmental pollutants on the immune system.

Keywords:

• Halogenated disinfection byproducts
• macrophage
• polarization
• inflammatory
• anti-inflammatory

Acknowledgements

We thank Robert V. Swanda and Xiaomin Liu at Cornell University for helpful discussion and critical reading of our manuscript.

Disclosure statement

The authors report no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province, China under Grant No. BK20161032; the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 81802030; the State Scholarship Fund from China Scholarship Council under Grant No. 201808320064; and the Practice Innovation Program for College Graduate students of Jiangsu Province under Grant No. SJCX19_0009.