May the Force(s) be with You: The Utility of Using a Game-Based Approach to Teach Biomechanics

Abstract

Many high school students fear and dislike introductory biomechanics, which can add to the challenges physical educators face in teaching and supporting their students’ learning. There is evidence that active and participative learning approaches can improve student engagement with and understanding of biomechanical concepts. This can be done by teaching the theoretical and practical components of biomechanics within a specific pedagogical approach, namely Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU). As TGfU has been shown to significantly improve student engagement and learning in a wide variety of other related disciplines, this article provides strategies for introducing biomechanics using the TGfU pedagogy framework—which may also benefit STEM engagement and the application of STEM-related knowledge.

The mere mention of biomechanics can send many high school students running for the hills. Why? The reasons differ, but the fact that many topics covered in a characteristic biomechanics curriculum involve abstract terminology, variables that are not observable but are implied, and a raft of formulas can make the subject off-putting. When tasked with learning a subject that can be complex and difficult to put into practice, high school students often experience anxi­ety. In fact, many university students even avoid or drop out of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors (including biomechanics) due to anxiety about science and mathematics (Keogh et al., 2021). This is a shame, as both teaching and learning biomechanics should be fun, engaging, and rewarding, and ought to provide a significant opportunity for the appreciation and understanding of human movement—something physical education (PE) teachers strive to promote. Physics education research has documented that many high school students fear and dislike university physics, and these negative perceptions endure even after the course is completed (Docktor & Mestre, 2014). This may parallel with the anxiety and negative perception of both physics and biomechanics held by many high school students. The consequential outcome is that student comprehension of biomechanical concepts is poor.

However, poor student comprehension could be due to the overly theoretical approach used to teach the various subjects contained within biomechanics. While aspects of biomechanics may lend themselves to being taught scientifically and verified through logical or mathematical proofs (e.g., positivism), many of the constructs and definitions can be taught prior to introducing the mathematical formulas involved. This “flipped” approach may enhance student understanding when it comes to calculating velocity, displacement, speed, and acceleration, for instance, and can be used in PE.

One area that is actively promoted to enhance student engagement and comprehension in PE is the use of game-based learning activities. Specifically, game-based learning has been shown to be beneficial to learning, especially when taught in a blended learning environment (Keogh et al., 2017). Different authors have reported on the influence of the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) pedagogy on game performance, physical education, and psychosocial variables (Ortiz et al., 2023). Yet, while many researchers working in K–12 educational settings have supported the incorporation of TGfU pedagogy into PE, little has been communicated about the effect of integrating TGfU into the teaching of biomechanics. Therein lies an opportunity, as many biomechanics-based activities lend themselves to practical tasks that can be aligned with the curriculum. To establish the teaching-for-understanding process in biomechanics, the physical educator needs to apply biomechanics in a practical and theoretical context. This article provides a practical strategy for combining several key biomechanical principles using one single sporting activity by means of the TGfU pedagogical method.

Teaching Games for Understanding

Imagine a physical educator working on throwing ability using a Frisbee with a class of adolescent students. Most adolescents would have previously had some experience in throwing, catching, intercepting, and striking objects from elementary PE lessons. Indeed, the high school students may have been previously taught the critical features of throwing and catching using a variety of practical cues. Using the TGfU pedagogy combined with a theoretical component, the PE teacher can provide interactive and engaging learning activities that students studying biomechanics may feel would improve their learning, especially when taught in a blended learning environment.

TGfU is a pedagogical game-based approach (Oslin & Mitchell, 2006) that advocates for the learner playing the game as the central organizational feature of a lesson (Gutierrez Diaz del Campo et al., 2011). TGfU also integrates tactics and skills into games (Bunker & Thorpe, 1982). Bunker and Thorpe argued that some categories of sports show similar tactical strategies, and therefore, proposed that games could be used to teach the main tactics required for each game by following four pedagogical principles: sampling (using modified games and sport to facilitate the games’ integration), exaggeration (changing game structures to promote and exaggerate a particular aspect of the game), representation (using small-sided modified games structured to suit the age and/or experience of the players), and questioning (posing questions to promote problem solving in students; i.e., what to do, when to do it, and why to do it). Since the origin of TGfU, multiple variables have been developed to fulfill needs according to social and cultural contexts. Two such examples are the Tactical Games Model, created in the United States, or Game Sense, produced in Australia. The TGfU approach proposes the use of games, as they facilitate overcoming limitations by placing the learning of skills in a specific context, thus resulting in the understanding of games, the development of tactical knowledge, and the improvement of problem-solving abilities through the execution of skills and decision-making actions (Renshaw et al., 2016). Figure 1 lists the basic approach of TGfU with the starting point being (1) Game.

Figure 1. TGfU pedagogical approach.

In biomechanics, students often need the ability to integrate mathematics, physics, anatomy, and analytical skills to fully comprehend the concepts (Abraham et al., 2018) before they can apply this knowledge to physical activity and/or sports. These skills include creating and reading graphs, applying physical equations and mechanical concepts, and forming hypotheses (Riskowski, 2015). Even if a student is strong in most of these skills, if they experience even some difficulty in just one skill, their overall ability to integrate the concepts into a workable model and their performance in assessments may be compromised. Utilizing TGfU presents a range of options for the PE teacher and students to work through biomechanical problems, answer questions, and assess learning during practical scenarios. For the present article, the game of Ultimate Frisbee was selected and forms the basis of the kinetics (forces) and kinematical (movement) descriptors of both theory and practice for PE teachers teaching biomechanics while using a TGfU pedagogical approach.

Introduction to Biomechanics

Biomechanics is the science of movement of a living body, including how muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments work in unison. Biomechanics is part of the larger field of kinesiology, specifically focusing on movement mechanics. Students can benefit from knowing that there are various uses for biomechanics, including analyzing movements to make improvements and enhance performance, treating injuries, and informing training protocols. It is important to clarify to students that both kinetics and kinematics are areas of study that deal with the motion of an object (i.e., human), but only the former also addresses the causes, or the forces, of that motion. From here, the PE teacher can consider informing students that biomechanics also incorporates fluid mechanics (e.g., drag, surface drag), friction, collisions, engineering, and safe work practices (e.g., ergonometric assessment). All of these can be represented by mathematical formulas and expressions. It is, however, important that students do not feel overwhelmed during the introductory phase of biomechanics. Sometimes less is more, as the adage states.

Professionals teaching motor skills (i.e., physical educators) teach a variety of human movement skills (Knudson, 2021). However, what is important is not only what is taught, but the way it is taught. Biomechanics scholars have consistently reported 15% to 48% greater mean student learning of sport and exercise biomechanics concepts with active learning approaches compared to traditional lectures alone (Knudson, 2019). There is also evidence that learning benefits can be obtained from both low-tech and high-tech approaches (Knudson & Wallace, 2019). Similarly, extensive physics education research has advised that large improvements in learning occur as a result of active learning approaches compared to the traditional ­lecture approach (Bao & Koenig, 2019). This adds to the capability of students to derive kinematic and kinetic properties in a conventional game and skill-based PE situation.

To start, when introducing biomechanical concepts to students for the first time, the PE teacher can communicate the lesson objectives with the emphasis on students being able to interpret, deduce, and articulate the prevailing biomechanical features. Yet, when considering what objectives to set and why, the PE teacher should keep in mind that the lesson should be taught in a fun and engaging setting that is linked to the wider principles of biomechanics. Despite this, a pedagogical factor to consider is that students should undertake qualitative and quantitative analyses of movement. Here, the PE teacher can consider asking students the questions outlined in Table 1. Of significance in Table 1, the questions focus on throwing a Frisbee, that is—the act of standing statically, holding a Frisbee prior to release. The probing questions are designed for students to inquire about the movement involved in the act of Frisbee throwing prior to them commencing the task. This approach has many benefits. For instance, it allows students to apply cognitive thinking to the task, thereby allowing them to analyze and deconstruct how movement occurs in time and space. Second, it serves as an initial assessment of prior knowledge and can help the physical educator to determine if initial comprehension is lacking.

Table 1. Example Probing Questions Prior to Throwing a Frisbee

Question	Rationale	Student Considerations
What do you need to know to begin?	Allows students to analyze what is required to throw the Frisbee effectively.	Spatial awareness, Frisbee mass, trajectory, velocity, distance traveled.
Why do you need to know this information?	Provides scope for critical movement analysis.	Speed and accuracy requirements, movement analysis.
What is the key idea?	Linked to outcome (i.e., to throw the Frisbee a set distance with a constant velocity and accuracy).	Determine variables that influence flight of Frisbee.

Feel the Force(s): Teaching Biomechanics Using Ultimate Frisbee

To start, imagine that you are a high school physical educator planning a blended theoretical and TGfU lesson to teach the fundamentals of biomechanics that relate to throwing a Frisbee.

One effective strategy is to provide context and a narrative. For instance, the PE teacher could explain that Frisbee-tossing (throwing) has been a popular pastime of many children and adolescents since its invention by Fred Morrison in the 1950s. Then, they can state that “today, the popularity of Frisbee, under the guise of Ultimate Frisbee, continues to grow.”

A Frisbee is a flying disc that not only travels great distances when flung but appears to hover in the air. More precisely, the PE teacher can explain that many have wondered at the physics behind the strange trajectory of the Frisbee, assuming that its spin might be responsible for its lift. However, this example is more focused on the Frisbee’s trajectory and the combined biomechanical considerations that influence its trajectory. To support probing questions (Table 1), students can undertake a needs analysis. Here, students are involved in the preparatory task of a qualitative and quantitative diagnosis of the Frisbee throw. Following this, a likely passage for the PE teacher is to ask students what they believe to be the critical features (e.g., the kinematics) of the movement, as summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Critical Features and Teaching Cues for Movement Analysis in Frisbee Throwing

Critical Feature	Possible Student Responses/Intervention Cues
Readiness	Athletic stance
Visual focus	Watch the trajectory and distance traveled
Intercept	Move and reach toward the Frisbee
Hand position	Thumbs in or gripping the Frisbee
Absorption	Give with your hands and arms

Once completed, the students can commence the practical activity (i.e., throwing and receiving the Frisbee with a partner). As students practice this skill, a contextualized skill-based approach based on Newton’s laws of motion can be introduced, if the PE teacher judges it is appropriate. In turn, this will start the process of using practical motion to diagnose performance using Newtonian physics. At a suitable teaching moment, the PE teacher might ask students, “Which of Newton’s laws of motion seem most relevant to the critical features of moving the Frisbee from its state of rest?” From here, the law of inertia can lead into Newton’s second law of motion in that, to accelerate the Frisbee (i.e., to move the mass of the Frisbee), an applied force is necessary. Here, the variable of muscular force (internal) force can be introduced as students experiment with applying different levels of force to throw the Frisbee to a partner. At this time, the students continue to work in pairs as one throws the Frisbee while the other one catches. Then the PE teacher may decide to change the parameters of the game (e.g., change the size of the playing area to increase the distance between the students), all the while maintaining fidelity to the biomechanics involved in the motion. When the opportunity arises, the PE teacher can describe Newton’s second law of motion by asking students, “Is more force needed to accelerate the Frisbee given that it has a greater distance to travel?” and “Is a greater force needed to overcome inertia?” The use of targeted questioning by the teacher, the use of targeted games, and the adaptation of instructional materials to promote learning between practical and theoretical components in real time can help define and redefine the learning needed to link both laws of motion. The expected answer is that a greater force is needed to accelerate the Frisbee given the greater distance and trajectory.

Newton’s third law of motion is commonly known as the law of action/reaction. However, the PE teacher may wish to consider introducing the law as “for every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (force).” This is because action and reaction forces come in pairs, equal in strength and opposite in direction. Thus, the action and reaction forces always act on different objects, which in this situation is the Frisbee.

Be Impulsive with Impulse

Impulse is a measure of the force applied to an object (Impulse = Force × Change in time). Remaining with the TGfU pedagogy, to help students comprehend impulse, the PE teacher can consider another group-based task. The game-based methodology is to ask the students to form groups of four with one student selected as the “interceptor.” For teacher context, this game is akin to the childhood game of “monkey in the middle” with one student selected as the “interceptor” with the role of intercepting (i.e., catching) the Frisbee as the remaining three students apply different levels of force to throw the Frisbee to each other, evading the interceptor. When convenient, the PE teacher can introduce the variable of impulse. As impulse is equal to the product of the force applied to the object and the time over which the force is applied, students can experiment and form their own hypothesis about whether a short or a longer impulse is needed, or imparted, to the Frisbee. The effect of force on an object (i.e., a Frisbee) depends on how long it acts, as well as how great the force is. The PE teacher can ask each group of students to collaborate and form a working hypothesis based on the question, “What would occur if a smaller impulse was imparted to the Frisbee over a longer time interval?” This practice allows teachers the freedom to implement an engaging, interactive, and innovative method and promote student-directed learning.

Leveraging the Lever

“Give me a lever long enough and a fulcrum on which to place it, and I shall move the world.” So said Archimedes. Levers are omnipresent and a number of TGfU-based learning activities could be incorporated into the lesson. The PE teacher can provide a straightforward introduction to levers in that levers are used to either multiply force and move a heavy resistance more easily or to produce range of motion and multiply speed. From here, the PE teacher can segue by providing examples, such as that (1) a lever in the body consists of the axis or fulcrum—the fixed joint/axis in the body that the lever moves around; (2) the force (effort) is produced by the muscles that contract to generate the force to move the lever; and (3) the resistance is the bone and whatever is being held or moved by the bone. Once the theory is introduced, the PE teacher can revert to using TGfU by demonstrating the practicality of using the upper limb as a lever when throwing the Frisbee. While students should comprehend the basics of lever systems outside of the human body, namely first- (e.g., a see saw), second- (e.g., a wheelbarrow), and third- (e.g., a slingshot) class levers, applying the same concept to the human body can be challenging. However, using the action of throwing a Frisbee, lever systems can be displayed in a more meaningful and constructive way. For instance, the PE teacher can ask students to hold the Frisbee close to their torso while simultaneously nodding their head up and down. This provides a straightforward example of a first-class lever in the human body. The teacher can introduce an anatomical function in that the skull essentially “balances/pivots” on two bones called the atlas and the axis. Then, the teacher can ask students to repeat the same action while going into dorsiflexion (standing on their tiptoes). This is a second-class lever in action. This then leads the PE teacher to indicate that the most common lever found in the body is a third-class lever. To demonstrate, students can experiment with fast throwing actions of the Frisbee, as the effort is in the middle between the fulcrum (or axis) and the load, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Lever systems and the human equivalents, where the left one is second class, the middle is first class, and the right is third class.

The PE teacher can then change the game parameters and introduce a net/wall game. In this small-sided group game students propel the Frisbee into the air while trying to make it difficult for an opposing team to return it. The use of targeted questioning, small-sided group games, and the adaptation of instructional materials to promote problem-solving initiatives (e.g., game play space or the addition of an educational artefact) can promote a debate of concepts among students to help define and redefine biomechanical concepts such as “the longer the resistance arm, the greater the inertia that needs to be overcome.” Hence, the level of applied force and the distance needed for the Frisbee to travel can be considered relative to the length of the throwing or lever arm. This is particularly significant when considering students’ different anthropometric variables (e.g., long limbs, short limbs). The PE teacher can then consider additional elaborations in that a longer lever (and resistance arm) can multiply the speed due to its larger range of motion. In practical terms, they can explain that when a student with a longer limb (i.e., a longer forearm) applies the same angular velocity as a person with a shorter limb, the Frisbee will travel farther in the same period of time, excluding external variables.

Projecting the Projectile

This is perhaps the simplest concept to point out, define, explain, and demonstrate before asking students to validate the task in small groups. The PE teacher can reintroduce the Frisbee, this time as a projectile, by stating that “projectile motion refers to the motion of the Frisbee when released into the air. A projectile is influenced by air resistance and gravity.” Once it has left the ground, it will follow a flight path called a parabola until it returns to earth. Students may understand that the very top of the trajectory is called the apex. If a projectile takes off and lands at the same height, the trajectory is symmetrical. The students can experiment with throwing the Frisbee to their partner and observing the pattern of flight.

Further targeted questioning by the PE teacher can include, “What force is working against the horizontal motion of a projectile?” They can then explain that the force of gravity only works in the vertical direction. This requires the students to ponder the factors influencing the horizontal component of motion. Another feasible approach for the teacher to consider is to frame an activity whereby students take turns being a “coach.” Here, the coach is required to help evaluate the throwing ability of the team. For instance, the PE teacher can set up a quadrant and ask the students to locate themselves at random locations within the square. The coach can position themselves in a location that they believe is best suited to review their teammates’ performance. The PE teacher can ask the coach, “Why have you chosen that position? What aspects of the movement are you looking at and why?”

Basic principles of projectile motion are then introduced to the game. At this juncture, the three factors affecting the flight path (trajectory) of the Frisbee are speed of release, angle of release, and height of release. These factors can be manipulated to achieve a particular performance outcome, such as maximizing distance, maximizing height, or maximizing or minimizing flight time. An idea, if the PE teacher wishes to use technology such as an iPad or iPhone, is to record the throwing motion, ask students to provide a self-analysis, and then see if their initial analysis was correct based on the video footage. As shown in Figure 3, students can then analyze the motion and assess positive and negative angles.

Figure 3. Negative launch angle (left), commencement of launch angle (middle), and moving into a positive launch angle (right).

When convenient, the PE teacher can ask students about the strengths and weaknesses of their performance, linking back to the key concepts of vertical and horizontal motion and the factors that influence the Frisbee’s trajectory. A logical segue is to introduce angular motion. An opening statement akin to “When you throw a Frisbee, it starts to spin around its center” can be used, followed by “The speed at which it starts to spin is called angular acceleration.” Based on Newton’s second law, students should comprehend that the greater force applied to the Frisbee, the faster the Frisbee will spin. Questions to consider from the PE teacher include, “Are you good at throwing a Frisbee? Have you ever wondered how a Frisbee is able to fly so well?” Additional information is then provided by explaining how the shape of the Frisbee and the way it’s released can affect its spin, making it move differently. A possible concluding statement, if the PE teacher wishes, is to state that essentially every movement of the body at a joint is angular and that general motion is a combination of linear and angular motion. The key outcomes are that the spinning of a Frisbee and its shape are the main reasons it flies. As a Frisbee spins, it builds angular momentum whereby momentum is the mass of an object times the speed it is moving. Angular momentum is when an object spins around to gain momentum. Table 3 presents pedagogical examples and considerations related to biomechanical concepts, game-based learning activities, and possible learning outcomes. Such examples may be beneficial when planning a lesson and mapping curricula.

Table 3. Examples for Teaching Biomechanical Concepts with Game-Based Learning and Activities

Biomechanical Concept	Description for Students	TGfU Activity	Learning Outcome
Linear motion	Application of linear motion, applied force, and resultant velocity	Game: Frisbee Bowling Students “bowl” the Frisbee to each other, varying force. Distance is then varied resulting in the students needing to consider if a greater force is needed for the Frisbee to travel a greater distance.	Coefficient of friction: velocity would vary depending on coefficient of friction (influence of frictional surfaces). Applied force would consequently vary depending on the coefficient of static and kinetic friction.
Newtonian physics (laws of motion)	Law of inertia	Game: Stop, Start, Go Set a Frisbee on a flat surface. Position the Frisbee so that it is completely motionless. Ask what will happen to the Frisbee. Ask what needs to happen for the Frisbee to move. Ask for a force to be applied in the horizontal direction, rolling the Frisbee along the floor. Ask what causes the Frisbee to stop.	A Frisbee at rest will tend to remain at rest, or a Frisbee in a straight line motion will continue to move in the same direction at the same speed unless acted on by an external force. When a Frisbee is thrown with a large spin, it has a large amount of angular momentum, overcoming gyroscopic inertia.
	Law of acceleration	Game: Frisball Students use a Frisbee to strike (hit) a sponge ball. Make a comparison, having the students lightly hit the ball first and then strike it with more force later. Measure how far the ball travels in each instance and mark it with a chalk or tape line. Compare the distances, pointing out that the harder swing pushed the ball much farther than the lighter one.	When an unbalanced force acts on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the force. Acceleration is directly proportional to the unbalanced force and is indirectly proportional to the mass of the object. Inversely proportional means that if one variable is multiplied by a number, the other variable must be divided by the same number. Now, it also seems reasonable that acceleration should be inversely proportional to the mass of the system (object). Relationship stated by Newton’s second law of motion: Force = Mass × Acceleration, or F = ma The forces that act on a Frisbee and the Frisbee’s rotational motion are what account for its stable linear trajectory in the air. The effects of the forces and the rotational motion permit a Frisbee to fly in the air instead of plummeting to the ground. The factors affecting the path of a projectile are height of release, angle of release, and velocity of release.
	Law of action/reaction	Game: 10 Passes The aim is for one team to pass the Frisbee 10 times without losing possession to gain a point. Each pass of the Frisbee demonstrates Newton’s third law (when a player passes the Frisbee, muscle force is applied to the Frisbee, and a force of equal and opposite magnitude is applied back).	For every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (force). Action forces and reaction forces always come in pairs, equal in strength and opposite in direction.
Impulse	The change in momentum of an object. To change the momentum of an object, a force must be applied. The rate of change of momentum is equal to the net force acting on it.	Pivot and Pass In pairs, student 1 stands in a hoop and performs a sideways Frisbee throw to their partner who catches and returns the Frisbee and runs to a different position around the hoop. Student 1 pivots in the hoop and throws the Frisbee to their partner who is now in a different position. Apply different levels of force when throwing.	The effect of a force applied to the Frisbee depends on how long it acts, as well as how great the force is. Impulse is a measure of the force applied for a specific time. Impulse = force × time and has units Ns (Newton seconds). Throws performed from long distances require greater impulse to propel the Frisbee toward a partner.
Lever systems and mechanical advantage	The axis or fulcrum: the fixed joint/axis in the body that the lever moves around. The force (effort): the muscles that contract to generate the force to move the lever. The resistance: the bone of the body and whatever is being held or moved by the bone.	Leveraging the Lever Third-class levers allow you to do fast movements such as throwing, kicking, or swinging a tennis racket. When you kick a ball, you use the bones. Measure the distance you can throw a Frisbee from different positions.	A lever is a simple machine that consists of a rigid beam (e.g., an arm or leg bone in the body) that rotates around a fixed point (an axis or fulcrum). A lever rotates around an axis when force (or effort) is applied, causing the lever to move against resistance (or load). There are three classes of lever: first, second and third. A lever can be used to either multiply force and move a heavy resistance more easily or to produce range of motion and multiply speed.
Projectile	An instrument (equipment) which is thrown or jumped into the air.	Frisbee Golf Set up a course with a variety of hoops/Frisbee golf nets and a base from where players start (best played in an oval or open space). Divide the class into groups of up to four players and start each at a different hole. Players take turns attempting to get the Frisbee into the hoop/net.	Projectile motion is motion of an object thrown or projected into the air, subject to acceleration of gravity. Since a Frisbee is under the effects of a constant acceleration (–9.8 m/s²) in the vertical and 0 in the horizontal plane, its trajectory is predictable based on the magnitude and direction of its initial velocity at takeoff. Object is called a projectile and its path is called a trajectory.

Deterministic Modeling

Figure 4 shows an example of a deterministic model. A deterministic modeling paradigm determines the relationships linking a movement outcome measure and the biomechanical factors that produce such a measure. A PE teacher could request that students provide a deterministic model at the conclusion of the practical TGfU biomechanics class as part of a summative assessment task. Here, students would determine a movement or action, starting with the primary performance factor(s) (e.g., angle of release, angular velocity, angular momentum, drag, lift for Frisbee golf), followed by a breakdown into secondary factors (or derivatives) and so on. Hence, a deterministic model akin to that displayed in Figure 4 can have many levels.

Figure 4. Example of a deterministic model.

Conclusion: Finding the Fun

Fun. Perhaps one of the least likely words to arise when teaching biomechanics for the first time to unsuspecting students. Yet, by using a Frisbee to explain the basic laws of motion and additional biomechanical constructs while providing a blended lesson that ultilizes TGfU, students can obtain both the theoretical and practical components of introductory biomechanics. The concepts and principles involved in Frisbee throwing provide key teaching points (critical features) for both quantitative (e.g., distance traveled, velocity, height of release, angular acceleration) and qualitative diagnosis (movement analysis, feedback, knowledge of performance) of technique. This methodology also allows educators to identify exercises and physical activities that contribute to the physical development of various muscle groups and fitness components. A Frisbee was selected due to the relative novelty of the sport, and that the throwing motion and trajectory lend themselves to a fun, engaging, and collaborative approach to student learning. Further, TGfU-based learning in biomechanics may afford students greater progression in and comprehension of content, as well as improve students’ attitudes toward concepts and courses they perceive as challenging. Advances in student understanding of biomechanics may also enhance STEM engagement and the application of STEM-related knowledge.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Stuart Evans

Stuart Evans ([email protected]) is a Lecturer, Teacher Education, Physical Education, Sport & Movement in the School of Education at La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia.

Kellie Sanders

Kellie Sanders is a Lecturer, Physical Education and Health and Wellbeing in the School of Education at La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia.