Advanced search
Publication Cover
Zoology in the Middle East Volume 54, 2011 - Issue sup3: Biodiversity Conservation in the Arabian Peninsula edited by Mike Knight, David Mallon, Philip Seddon in cooperation with Environment and Protected Areas Authority Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
Submit an article Journal homepage
7,556
Views
55
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Regional Approaches

Past and present human impacts on the biodiversity of Socotra Island (Yemen): implications for future conservation

Kay Van Damme Department of Biology, Ghent University, K. L. Ledeganckstr. 35, 9000, Ghent, BelgiumCorrespondence[email protected]
&
Lisa Banfield Centre for Middle Eastern Plants, Royal Botanical Gardens Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Pages 31-88 | Published online: 28 Feb 2013

Abstract

The Socotra Archipelago (Yemen) is globally recognized for its outstanding biodiversity and endemism, designated on this basis a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008. The island underwent long geological and political isolation, ensuring preservation of unique ecosystems until the start of the new millennium. Now, Socotra Island is undergoing rapid development, out of balance with conservation. Major causes for biodiversity loss in other global insular ecosystems such as habitat fragmentation and degradation, pollution, invasive species and the impact of tourism, are becoming pressing issues that deserve close attention. Unsustainable resource use, the loss of traditional land management and illegal trade in biota are worrying phenomena that further increase the pressures on Socotra’s ecosystems. We provide the first comprehensive review of potential human impacts on Socotra before the 21st century, an updated discussion of some of the principal threats to its biodiversity in recent times, discussing local examples within a historical context of known extinction processes on islands, and underline the importance of traditional knowledge in the protection of Socotran ecosystems.

“Can it be true that only a few years after only being visited by a few more than the occasional sailor or botanist, harmless painter or devoted ant specialist, Soqotra may irrevocably become a paradise lost?” (Glander 2009 comparing impressions on Socotra to impressions of 2005)

References

  • Adolt R. Pavlis J. (2004): Age structure and growth of Dracaena cinnabari populations on Socotra. – Trees 18: 43–53
  • Al-Eryani A. R. Zandri E. (2006): Case Study 4. Coral Mining. In: C. Cheung & L. DeVantier (2006), Socotra – A Natural History of the Islands and their People. K. Van Damme (Ed.). p. 355. Odyssey Books and Guides, Airphoto International Ltd., Hong Kong
  • Alongi D.M. (2002): Present state and future of the world’s mangrove forests. – Environmental Conservation 29: 331–349
  • Al-Safadi M. M. (1998): Freshwater fishes of Soqotra Island, Yemen. In: H. J. Dumont. (Ed.), Soqotra: Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Soqotra Island: Present & Future, p. 213–217. – United Nations Publications, New York
  • Attorre F. Francesconi F. Taleb N. Scholte P. Saeed A. Alfo M. Bruno F. (2007): Will dragonblood survive the next period of climate change? Current and future potential distribution of Dracaena cinnabari (Socotra, Yemen). – Biological Conservation 138: 430–439
  • Bahn P. Flenley J. R. (1992): Easter Island, Earth Island. – Thames and Hudson, London. 240 pp
  • Balfour I. B. (1888): The Botany of Sokotra. – Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 31: 1–446
  • Balmford A. (1996): Extinction filters and current resilience: the significance of past selection pressures for conservation biology. – Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11: 193–196
  • Banfield L. (2006): The biodiversity and conservation of the wet refugia of the Socotra Archipelago. – Unpubl. MSc Thesis, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
  • Banfield L. Van Damme K. Pietsch D. Porter R. Miller A. (2009): Road Development on Soqotra. – Friends of Soqotra Newsletter (Tayf) 6: 6–9
  • Banfield L. Miller A. Neubert E. Porter R. Senan A.S. Van Damme K. (2010): Invasive Species: the Dangers of Introducing Alien Animals and Plants on Soqotra. – Friends of Soqotra Newsletter (Tayf) 7: 10–15
  • Banfield L. Van Damme K. Miller A. (in press): Evolution and biogeography of the flora of the Socotra Archipelago (Yemen). In: D. Bramwell (Ed.), The evolution of island floras. – Cambridge University Press
  • Baum T. (1997): The fascination of islands: A tourism perspective. In: D. G. Lockhart & D. Drakakis-Smith (Eds), Island tourism: trends and prospects. – London and New York: Pinter, p. 21–35
  • Baur A. Baur B. (1990): Are roads barriers to dispersal in the land snail Arianta arbustorum? – Canadian Journal of Zoology 68: 613–617
  • Beydoun Z. R. Bichan H. R. (1970): The geology of Socotra, Gulf of Aden. – Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society London 125: 413–446
  • Biagini E. Hoyle B. S. (1999): Insularity and development: international perspectives on islands. – Island Studies Series, London, Pinter, 378 pp
  • Birdlife International (2008): Nominated World Heritage Site facing development threats. Birdlife News. – www.birdlife.org/news/news/2008/02/socotra.html
  • BirdLife International (2008–2009): Nectarinia balfouri. Cisticola haesitatus. Emberiza socotrana. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.3. – www.iucnredlist.org
  • Blackburn T. M. Cassey P. Duncan R. P. Evans K. L. Gaston K. J. (2004): Avian extinction and mammalian introductions on Oceanic islands. – Science 305: 1955–1958
  • Boggs R. (2006): Case Study 7. Socotran nursery and botanical garden for rare and endemic plants. In: C. Cheung. & L. DeVantier (2006), Socotra – A Natural History of the Islands and their People. K. Van Damme (Ed.). – Odyssey Books and Guides, Airphoto International Ltd., Hong Kong, 360 pp
  • Boschi C. Baur B. (2007) The effect of horse, cattle and sheep grazing on the diversity and abundance of land snails in nutrient-poor calcareous grasslands. – Basic and Applied Ecology 8: 55–65
  • Boyer A. G. (2008) Extinction patterns in the avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. – Diversity and Distributions 14: 509–517
  • Brown D. S. (1994): Freshwater snails of Africa and their medical importance. – London: Taylor & Francis, 608 pp
  • Buckley R. (2009): Evaluating the net effects of ecotourism on the environment: a framework, first assessment and future research. – Journal of Sustainable Tourism 17: 643–672
  • Bull L. S. Courchamp F. (2009): Management of interacting invasives: ecosystem approaches. p. 232–247. In: M. N. Clout & P. A. Williams (Eds), Invasives species management. – Oxford Biology, Techniques in Ecology & Conservation Series, Oxford University Press, UK
  • Campbell K. Donlan C. J. (2005): Feral Goat Eradications on Islands. – Conservation Biology 19: 1362–1374
  • Carpenter A. I. Rowcliffe J. M. Watkinson A. R. (2004): The dynamics of the global trade in chameleons. – Biological Conservation 120: 291–301
  • Casson L. (1982): Periplus Maris Erythraei: Notes on the Text. – The Journal of Hellenic Studies 102: 204–206
  • Casson L. (1989): The Periplus Maris Erythraei. Text with introduction, translation, and commentary by Lionel Casson. – Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey (USA), 320 pp
  • CBD (2010): Convention of Biological Diversity – www.cbd.int/2010
  • Ceccolini L. (2002): The homegardens of Soqotra island, Yemen: an example of agroforestry approach to multiple land-use in an isolated location. – Agroforestry Systems 56: 107–115
  • Cerny V. Pereira L. Kujanova M. Vaoikova A. Hajek M. Morris M. Mulligan C. (2009): Out of Arabia-The Settlement of Island Soqotra as Revealed by Mitochondrial and Y Chromosome Genetic Diversity. – American Journal of Physical Anthropology 138: 439–447
  • Cheke A. Hume J. (2008): Lost land of the Dodo: an ecological history of the Mascarene Islands. – T&AD Poyser, London, 464 pp
  • Cheung C. DeVantier L. (2006): Socotra – A natural history of the islands and their people. In: K. Van Damme (Ed.), Odyssey Books and Guides, Airphoto International Ltd., Hong Kong, 408 pp
  • Chiba S. Okochi I. Ohbayashi T. Miura D. Mori H. Kimura K. Wada S. (2009): Effects of habitat history and extinction selectivity on species-richness patterns of an island land snail fauna. – Journal of Biogeography 36: 1913–1922
  • Christie S. (2005): Socotra’s Road to Ruin. – Geographical 77: 60–64
  • Christophe A. (2005): Socotra – the lost island. – Cactus & Co. Libri, 64 pp
  • Clout C. R. Veitch M. N. (2002): Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species. – Proceedings of the International Conference on Eradication of Island Invasives. Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission 27. IUCN SSC Invasive Specialist Group, IUCN, Gland (Switzerland) & Cambridge (UK), 414 pp
  • Coblentz B. E. (1978): The effects of feral goats (Capra hircus) on island ecosystems. – Biological Conservation 13: 279–286
  • Collingwood C. A. Pohl H. Güsten R. Wranik W. van Harten A. (2004): The ants (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae) of the Socotra Archipelago. – Fauna of Arabia: 20: 473–495
  • Coppois G. (1995): Threatened galapagos bulimulid land snails: an update. In: E. A. Kay (Ed.), The conservation of molluscs. – Proceedings of a Symposium held at the 9th International Malacological Congress, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1986. p. 8–11. – IUCN Publications, Gland (Switzerland)
  • Cronk Q. C. B. (1992): Relict floras of Atlantic islands: patterns assessed. – Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 46: 91–103
  • Cronk Q. C. B. (1997): Islands: stability, diversity, conservation. – Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 477–493
  • Da Fonseca G. A. B. Mittermeier R. A. Mittermeier C. G. (2006): Conservation of island biodiversity: Importance, challenges and opportunities. – Centre for Applied Biodiversity Science. A Conservation International Publication, 16 pp
  • Davey S. Schlossman M. (2007): Unforgettable islands to escape to before you die. – BBC Books, Ebury Press (United Kingdom), 256 pp
  • Davies R. G. Orme C. D. L. Olson V. Thomas G. H. Ross S. G. Ding T.-S. Rasmussen P. C. Stattersfield A. J. Stattersfield A. J. Bennett P. M. Blackburn T. M. Owens I. P. F. Gaston K. J. (2006): Human impacts and the global distribution of extinction risk. – Proceedings of the Royal Society B 273: 2127–2133
  • De Geest P. Keppens E. Verheyden S. Cheng H. Edwards L. (2006): High-resolution Holocene speleothem records from Soqotra Island, Yemen as a tool for Indian Ocean climate reconstruction. – Karst Waters Institute Special Publication 10: Archives of Climate Change in Karst: 103–104
  • Deidun A. (2010): Challenges to the conservation of biodiversity on small islands: the case of the Maltese Islands. – International Journal of Arts and Sciences 3: 175–187
  • Desender K. Baert L. Maelfait J.-P. Verdyck P. (1999): Conservation on Volcan Alcedo (Galapagos): terrestrial invertebrates and the impact of introduced feral goats. – Biological Conservation 87: 303–310
  • DeVantier L. De’Ath G. Klaus R. Al-Moghrabi S. Abdulaziz M. Reinicke G.B. Cheung C. (2004): Reef-building corals and coral communities of the Socotra Archipelago, a zoogeographic ‘crossroads’ in the Arabian Sea. – Fauna of Arabia 20: 117–168
  • Diamond J.M. (1984): ‘Normal’ extinctions of isolated populations. p. 191–246. In: M. H. Nitecki (Ed.), Extinctions. – The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
  • Dumont H. J. Schneider W. (1998): Checklist of the dragonflies and damselflies of Soqotra Island (Insecta: Odonata). P. 219–231. In: H. J. Dumont (Ed.), Soqotra: Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Soqotra Island: Present & Future. – United Nations Publications, New York
  • Dvorak M. Vargas H. Fessl B. Tebbich S. (2004): On the verge of extinction: a survey of the mangrove finch Cactospiza heliobates and its habitat on the Galápagos Islands. – Oryx 38: 171–179
  • Dyksterhuis E. J. (1949): Condition and management of range land based on quantitative ecology. – Journal of Range Management 2: 104–115
  • Elie S. (2008): The waning of Soqotra’s pastoral community: political incorporation as social transformation. – Human Organization 67: 335–345
  • Elie S. (2009): State-Community Relations in Yemen: Soqotra’s Historical Formation as a Sub-National Polity. – History and Anthropology 20: 363–393
  • Elton C. S. (1958): The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. – Methuen, London, 181 pp
  • Evans-Illidge E. (2006): National Sovereignity, ‘green mining’ and the UN Convention of Biodiversity. p. 322–323. In: C. Cheung. & L. DeVantier (2006), Socotra – A natural history of the islands and their people. K. Van Damme (Ed.). – Odyssey Books and Guides, Airphoto International Ltd., Hong Kong
  • Extoxnet (1996): Temephos. Extension Toxicology Network Pesticide Information Profiles. Oregon State University. – http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/temephos.htm
  • Findlay C. S. Bourdages J. (2000): Response time of wetland biodiversity to road construction on adjacent lands. – Conservation Biology 14: 86–94
  • Fleitmann D. Matter A. Burns S.J. Al-Subbary A. Al-Aowah M.A. (2004):Geology and Quaternary climate history of Socotra. – Fauna of Arabia 20: 27–44
  • Fonseca C. R. (2009): The silent mass extinction of insect herbivores in biodiversity hotspots. – Conservation Biology 23: 1507–1515
  • Forbes H. O. (1903) (Ed.): The natural history of Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri. – Special Bulletin of the Liverpool Museums, Henry Young & Sons, London, 598 pp
  • Fordham D. A. Brook B. W. (2010): Why tropical island endemics are susceptible to global change. – Biodiversity and Conservation 19: 329–342
  • Frankham R. (1997): Do island populations have less genetic variation than mainland populations? – Heredity 78: 311–327
  • Francisco-Ortega J. Santos-Guerra A. Kim S.-C. Crawford D. J. (2000): Plant genetic diversity in the. Canary Islands: A conservation perspective. – American Journal of Botany 87: 909–919
  • French J. R. Burningham H. (2009): Coastal geomorphology: trends and challenges. –Progress in Physical Geography 33: 117–129
  • Fritts T. H. Rodda G. H. (1998): The role of introduced species in the degradation of island ecosystems: A case history of Guam. – Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29: 113–140
  • Gerlach J. (2004): Giant Tortoises of the Indian Ocean. The genus Dipsochelys inhabiting the Seychelles Islands and the extinct giants of Madagascar and the Mascarenes. – Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 207 pp
  • Gillespie R. G. Clague D. A. (2009): Encyclopedia of Islands. – University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, 1074 pp
  • Glander, A. (2009): Soqotra revisited. – Yemen Times, 12.08.2009. www.yementimes.com/DefaultDET.aspx?i=1245&p=report&a=1
  • Goodenough A. E. (2010): Are the ecological impacts of alien species misrepresented? A review of the “native good, alien bad” philosophy. – Community Ecology 11: 13–21
  • Gosliner T. M. (2009): Galápagos Islands, Biology. p. 357–367. In: R. G. Gillespie & D.A. Clague (Eds), Encyclopedia of Islands. – University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California
  • Gössling S. (2003): Tourism and development in tropical islands: Political ecology perspectives. p. 1–37. In: S. Gössling (Ed.), Tourism and development in tropical islands: Political ecology perspectives. – Edward Elgar Publishing, UK, 297 pp
  • Grant P. R. Grant B. R. Petren K. Keller L. F. (2005): Extinction behind our backs: the possible fate of one of the Darwin’s finch species on Isla Floreana, Galápagos. – Biological Conservation 122: 499–503
  • Groom N. (1981): Frankincense and myrrh: a study of the Arabian incense trade. – London: Longman, 285 pp
  • Groombridge B. (1992): Global biodiversity: status of the earth’s living resources. A report compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. – Chapman & Hall, London, 585 pp
  • Gwynne M. D. (1967): The possible origin of the dwarf cattle of Socotra. – The Geographical Journal 133: 39–42
  • Habrova H. Cermak Z. Pavlis J. (2009): Dragon’s blood tree – Threatened by overmaturity, not by extinction: Dynamics of a Dracaena cinnabari woodland in the mountains of Soqotra. – Biological Conservation 142: 772–778
  • Hughes M. Hollingsworth P. M. Miller A. (2003): Population genetic structure in the endemic Begonia of the Socotra archipelago. – Biological Conservation 113: 277–284
  • Humphries S. E. Groves R. H. Mitchell D. S. Hallegraeff G. M. Clark J. (1991): Plant Invasions: The Incidence of Environmental Weeds in Australia. – Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra.188 pp
  • IUCN (2000): Guidelines for the prevention of biodiversity loss due to biological invasion. IUCN – The World Conservation Union, Gland (Switzerland), 21 pp
  • IUCN (2008): World Heritage Nomination – IUCN Technical Evaluation – Socotra Archipelago (Yemen). – IUCN Evaluation Report 1263, May 2008, 12 pp
  • Jäger H. Kowarik I. Tye A. (2009): Destruction without extinction: long-term impacts of an invasive tree species on Galápagos highland vegetation. – Journal of Ecology 97: 1252–1263
  • Joger U. (2000): The reptile fauna of the Soqotra Archipelago. In: G. Rheinwald (Ed.), Isolated vertebrate communities in the tropics. – Bonn Zoological Monographs 46: 337–350
  • Kemp J. M. (1998): Zoogeography of the coral reef fishes of the Socotra Archipelago. –Journal of Biogeography 25: 919–933
  • Kennedy T. A. Naeem S. Howe K. M. Knops J. M. H. Tilman D. Reich P. (2002): Biodiversity as a barrier to ecological invasion. – Nature 417: 636–638
  • Kerr R. S. Edin F. A. S. (1811–1824): General history and collection of voyages and travels, arranged in systematic order: forming a complete history of the origin and progress of navigation, discovery, and commerce, by sea and land, from the earliest ages to the present time. – Ramsay, Edinburgh, 18 vols
  • Kessler C. C. (2002): Eradication of feral goats and pigs and consequences for other biota on Sarigan Island, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. p. 132–140. In: C. R. Veitch & M. N. Clout (Eds), Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species. Proceedings of the International Conference on Eradication of Island Invasives. – Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission 27. IUCN SSC Invasive Specialist Group, IUCN, Gland (Switzerland) and Cambridge (UK)
  • Klaus R. Jones D. A. Turner J. Simoes N. Vousden D. (2003): Integrated marine and coastal management: a strategy for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological resources in the Socotra Archipelago, Yemen. – Journal of Arid Environments 54: 71–80
  • Klein N. (2005): The global integration of Socotra – Challenge and opportunity for conservation and development. Lessons Learned Report from Socotra Field Learning Site, Yemen. – IUCN WCPA World Conservation Union World Commission on Protected Areas: Ecosystems, Protected Areas and People Project
  • Kossmat F. (1907): Geologie der Inseln Sokotra, Semha und Abd El Kuri. – Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien, mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Klasse 71: 1–62
  • Krupp F. Zajonz U. Khamis F. N. S. (2006): Socotra’s freshwater and estuarine fishes. p. 136. In: C. Cheung. & L. DeVantier. Socotra: A natural history of the islands and their people (K. Van Damme, Ed.). – Odyssey Press, Hong Kong
  • Leroy S. Gente P. Fournier M. d’Acremont E. Patriat P. Beslier M. O. Bellahsen N. Maia M. Blais A. Perrot J. Al-Kathiri A. Merkouriev S. Fleury J. M. Ruellan P. Y. Lepvrier C. Huchon P. (2004): From rifting to spreading in the eastern Gulf of Aden: a geophysical survey of a young ocean basin from margin to margin. – Terra Nova 16: 185–192
  • Lodé J. (2010): Succulent plants of Socotra. A Cactus adventures handbook. – Cactus Adventures Intl., Spain, 60 pp
  • Lonsdale W. M. (1999): Global patterns of plant invasions and the concept of invasibility. –Ecology 80: 1522–1536
  • Loretz R. Martin F. (2006): SWM Masterplan for Socotra, Yemen. – NSD-U Thesis, University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, 23 pp
  • Lowe, S. J., M. Browne, S. Boudjelas & M. De Poorter (2000): 100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species: A selection from the Global Invasive Species Database. – Auckland, New Zealand, IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). 12 pp (available at www.issg.org; see also www.issg.org/database/species/search.asp?st=100ss)
  • Maclachlan R. (1903): The Dragon-Flies of Sokotra. p. 398–403. In: H. O. Forbes (Ed.), The natural history of Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri. – Special Bulletin of the Liverpool Museums. Henry Young & Sons, London. [Note: confusing reference. The Dragonfly section in Forbes (1903) is part of a section entitled: “White Ants, Dragon-Flies, and Ant-Lions” by H. O. Forbes,R. McLachlan & W. F. Kirby. On p. 396, the editor notes that “Insecta: Neuroptera: Amphibiotica” were written by R. McLachlan (pp. 398–403), Pseudo-neuroptera by H.O. Forbes (p. 397) and Planipennia by W.F. Kirby (p.404–405); hence the author of the Dragonfly section is only R. McLachlan; plates of the dragonflies are on p. 406–409]
  • Malanson G. P. (2008). Extinction debt: origins, developments, and applications of a biogeographical trope. – Progress in Physical Geography 32: 277–291
  • Mangla Inderjit S. Callaway R.M. (2008): Exotic invasive plant accumulates native soil pathogens which inhibit native plants. – Journal of Ecology 96: 58–67
  • Marchat, L. (2008): Socotra Island threatened. – www.socotra.tripod.com/danger-english
  • Martin J. L. (2009): Are the IUCN standard home-range thresholds for species a good indicator to prioritize conservation urgency in small islands? A case study in the Canary Islands (Spain). – Journal for Nature Conservation 17: 87–98
  • Mayer A.-N. (2009): Probleme touristischer Entwicklung auf der Insel Soqotra. Vom Missverständnis “Ökotourismus” zu nachhaltigem Tourismus. – Jemen Studien 19: 1–152
  • McArthur R. H. Wilson E. O. (1967): The theory of island biogeography. – Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, Maple Press Company, 203 pp
  • Mckinney M.L. (1997): Extinction vulnerability and selectivity: combining ecological and paleontological views. – Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28: 495–516
  • Mies B. A. (2001): Flora und Vegetationsökologie der Insel Soqotra. – Essener Ökologische Schriften 15: 1–270
  • Miller A. Morris M. (2004): Ethnoflora of the Soqotra Archipelago. – Royal Botanical Gardens of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, 759 pp
  • Milton S. J. Dean W. R. J. du Plessis M. A. Siegfried W. R. (1994): A conceptual model of arid rangeland degradation. – Bioscience 44: 70–76
  • Mineau P. (2005): A review and analysis of study endpoints relevant to the assessment of “long term” pesticide toxicity in avian and mammalian wildlife. – Ecotoxicology 14: 775–799
  • Morris M. (2002): Manual of traditional land use in the Soqotra Archipelago. – GEF/YEM/96/G32. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, unpubl. report, 540 pp
  • Mothana R. A. A. Mentel R. Reiss C. Lindequist U. (2006): Phytochemical screening and antiviral activity of some medicinal plants from the Island Soqotra. – Phytotherapy Research 20: 298–302
  • Mothana R.A.A. Lindequist U. Gruenert R. Bednarski P.J. (2009): Studies of the in vitro anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant potentials of selected Yemeni medicinal plants from the island. – BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9:7
  • Myers N. Mittermeier R. A. Mittermeier C. G. da Fonseca G. A. B. Kent J. (2000): Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. – Nature 403: 853–858
  • Naeem S. Knops J. M. H. Tilman D. Howe K. M. Kennedy T. Gale S. (2000): Plant diversity increases resistance to invasion in the absence of covarying extrinsic factors. – Oikos 91: 97–108
  • Neubert E. (2005): The continental malacofauna of Arabia and adjacent areas, IV. Revision of the family Cerastidae in the Soqotran Archipelago, I: The genus Passamaella L. Pfeiffer 1877, with description of a new genus and species (Gastropoda: Pulmonata: Cerastidae). – Archiv für Molluskenkunde 134: 1–21
  • Neubert E. (2006): Land snails of the Socotra Archipelago. p. 125–127. In: C. Cheung & L. De-Vantier (2006), Socotra – A Natural History of the Islands and their People (K. Van Damme, ed.). – Odyssey Books and Guides, Airphoto International Ltd., Hong Kong
  • Neubert E. (2009): The continental malacofauna of Arabia and adjacent areas: VI. Pomatiidae of Arabia, Socotra and Northeast Africa, with descriptions of new genera and species (Gastropoda: Caenogastropoda: Littorinoidea). – Fauna of Arabia 24: 47–127
  • NMCP (2003): National Malaria Control Programme in Yemen Progress Report 2003. – WHO Country Reports. www.emro.who.int
  • Novacek M. (2009): Terra: our 100-million-year-old ecosystem and the threats that now put it at risk. – Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, NY, USA. 451 pp
  • Olson S. L. James H. F. (1982): Fossil birds from the Hawaiian Islands: evidence for wholesale extinction by man before Western contact. – Science 217: 633–635
  • Olson S. L. (1989): Extinction on islands: Man as a catastrophe. p. 50–53. In: D. Wester & M. C. Pearl (Eds), Conservation for the twenty-first century. – P. Oxford University Press, Oxford
  • Patil C. Paul R. Malkanna M. (2008): Neuroendocrine regulation and pesticidal impact on the freshwater crab, Barytelphusa guerini (H. Milne Edwards). – Journal of Environmental Biology 29: 887–892
  • Paulay G. (1994): Biodiversity on oceanic islands: its origin and extinction. – American Zoologist 34: 134–144
  • Pietsch D. Morris M. (2010): Modern and ancient knowledge of conserving soils in Socotra Island, Yemen. p. 374–386. In: P. Zdruli et al. (Eds), Land degradation and desertification: Assessment, mitigation and remediation. – Springer Publishing, Dordrecht
  • Pimm S. L. Russell G. J. Gittleman J. L. Brooks T. M. (1995): The future of biodiversity. – Science 269: 347–350
  • Porter R. F. Suleiman A. S. (in prep.) The population and distribution of the breeding birds of Socotra. – BirdLife International/SCDP
  • Porter R. F. Stone F. (1996): An introduction to Socotra and its birds. – Sandgrouse 17: 73–80
  • Porter R. F. Kirwan G. M. (2010): Studies of Socotran birds VI. The taxonomic status of the Socotran Buzzard. – Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club, 130: 116–131
  • Purvis A. Gittleman J.L. Cowlishaw G. Mace G.M. (2000): Predicting extinction risk in declining species. – Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 267: 1947–1952
  • Purvis A. Agapow P.-M. Gittleman J. L. Mace G. M. (2000): Nonrandom extinction and the loss of evolutionary history. – Science 288: 328–330
  • Raselimanana A. P. (2003): Trade in reptiles and amphibians. p. 1564–1568. In: S. M. Goodman & J. P. Benstead (Eds), The natural history of Madagascar. – The University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London
  • Régnier C. Fontaine B. Bouchet P. (2008): Not knowing, not recording, not listing: Numerous unnoticed mollusk extinctions. – Conservation Biology 23: 1214–1221
  • Resh V. H. Resh J. P. (2009): Islands in popular culture. p. 761–765. In: R. G. Gillespie & D. A. Clague (Eds), Encyclopedia of Islands. – University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles (California)
  • Richardson D. M. Pysek P. Rejmanek M. Barfour M. G. Panetta F. D. West C. J. (2000): Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: Concepts and definitions. – Biodiversity and Distributions 6: 93–107
  • Ricketts T. H. Dinerstein E. Boucher T. Brooks T. M. Butchart S. H. M. Hoffmann M. Lamoreux J. F. Morrison J. Parr M. Pilgrim J. D. Rodrigues A. S. L. Sechrest W. S. Wallace G. E. Berlin K. Bielby J. Burgess N. D. Church D. R. Cox N. Knox D. Loucks C. Luck G. W. Master L. L. Moore R. Naidoo R. Ridgely R. Schatz G. E. Shire G. Strand H. Wettengel W. Wikramanayake E. (2005): Pinpointing and preventing imminent extinctions. – Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102: 18497–18501
  • Riservato E. Grieco C. Pella F. Sindaco R. Pupin F. Suleiman A.S. Fasola M. (2010): A contribution to the knowledge of the odonatofauna of the Socotra Archipelago (Yemen). – Zoology in the Middle East 50: 101–106
  • Roessler H. Wranik W. (1999): Beiträge zur Herpetologie der Republik Jemen. 5. Drei neue Gecko-Arten vom Sokotra-Archipel (Reptilia: Sauria: Gekkonidae). – Zoologische Abhandlungen des Staatlichen Museums für Tierkunde Dresden 21: 113–132
  • Roessler H. Wranik W. (2004): A key and annotated checklist to the reptiles of the Socotra Archipelago. – Fauna of Arabia 20: 505–534
  • Royle S.A. (2001): A geography of islands: small island insularity. – Routledge: London. 239 pp
  • Sax D. F. Gaines S. D. (2008): Species invasions and extinction: The future of native biodiversity on islands. – Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105: 11490–11497
  • Scholte P. De Geest P. (2010): The climate of Socotra Island (Yemen): a first-time assessment of the timing of the monsoon wind reversal and its influence on precipitation and vegetation patterns. – Journal of Arid Environments 74: 1507–1515
  • Scholte P. Okaishi A. A. Saed Suleiman (in press). When conservation precedes development: experience with conservation during the opening up of Socotra, the Island of the Dragon’s Blood (Yemen). – Oryx, in press.
  • Sedov A. V. Naumkin V. V. Vinogradov Y. A. Zhukov V. A. Vinogradova E. M. Kurkina E. A. Sarabjev A. V. (2009): Preliminary report of the Russian Interdisciplinary Mission to the Republic of Yemen submitted to the general organization of antiquities and museums (G.O.A.M.). – Moscow, 19 pp
  • Senan A. S. Somashekar R. K F. Attorre Taleb N. Bruno F. (2010): Exotic species of Socotra Island, Yemen: a first contribution. – Annali di Botanica (Roma), 2010: 85–97
  • Sinclair A. R. E. Fryxell J. M. (1985): The Sahel of Africa: Ecology of a Disaster. – Canadian Journal of Zoology 63: 987–94
  • Sohlman E. (2004): A bid to save the ‘Galápagos of the Indian Ocean’. – Science 303: 1753
  • Sokolow S. (2009): Effects of a changing climate on the dynamics of coral infectious disease: a review of the evidence. – Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 87: 5–18
  • Soria M. C. Gardener M. R. Tye A. (2009): Eradication of potentially invasive plants with limited distributions in the Galapagos Islands. P. 287–292. In: C. R. Veitch & M. N. Clout (Eds), Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species. Proceedings of the International Conference on Eradication of Island Invasives. – Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission 27. IUCN SSC Invasive Specialist Group, IUCN, Gland (Switzerland) & Cambridge (United Kingdom)
  • Stanton D. (2009): Opportunistic wildlife trade in Yemen. – Wildlife Middle East 4: 7
  • Stevenson M. J. (2001): Galapagos Islands: Managing introduced species in an endangered ecosystem. – Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies Bulletin 105: 83–100
  • Strauch I. (2006): Socotra – the western-most outpost of ancient Indian scripts. P. 231. In: C. Cheung & L. DeVantier (2006), Socotra – a natural history of the islands and their people. (K. Van Damme, ed.). – Odyssey Books and Guides, Airphoto International Ltd., Hong Kong
  • Suleiman A. S. Meier G. G. Haverson P. J. (2010): Confirmed eradication of the House Crow from Socotra Island, Republic of Yemen. – Wildlife Middle East 4: 4
  • Taiti S. Checcucci I. (2009): New species and records of terrestrial Isopoda (Crustacea, Onscidea) from Socotra Island, Yemen. – Zookeys 31: 73–103
  • Taiti S. Ferrara F. (2004): The terrestrial Isopoda (Crustacea: Oniscidea) of the Socotra Archipelago. – Fauna of Arabia 20: 211–325
  • Thieme M. L. Abell R. Stiassny M. L. J. Skelton P. Burgess N. Lehner B. Dinerstein E. Olson D. Teugels G. Kamdem-Tohan A. (2005): Freshwater ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar. A conservation assessment. WWF Ecoregion Assessment. – Island Press, 483 pp
  • Tilman D. May R. M. Lehman C. L. Nowak M. A. (1994): Habitat destruction and the extinction debt. – Nature 371: 65–66
  • Towns D. R. Atkinson I. A. E. Daugherty C. H. (2006): Have the harmful effects of introduced rats on islands been exaggerated. – Biological Invasions 8: 863–891
  • Tracol Y. Gutiérrez J. R. Squeo F. A. (2011): Plant Area Index and microclimate underneath shrub species from a Chilean semiarid community. – Journal of Arid Environments 75: 1–6
  • Triantis K. A. Borges P. A. V. Ladle R. J. Hortal J. Cardoso P. Gaspar C. Dinis F. Mendonca E. Silveira L. M. A. Gabriel R. Melo C. Santos A. M. C. Amorim I. R. Ribeiro S. P. Serrano A. R. M. Quartau J. A. Whittaker P. J. (2010): Extinction debt on oceanic islands. – Ecography 33: 285–294
  • Trombulak S. C. Frissell C. A. (2000): Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. – Conservation Biology 14: 18–30
  • UNEP (2005): After the tsunami: rapid environmental assessment. – Report produced by the UNEP Division of Communications and Public Information. UNEP Publications, 145 pp
  • UNEP/WCMC (2008a): Socotra Archipelago, Yemen. UNESCO Fact Sheet. World Heritage Sites – Protected Areas and World Heritage. United Nations Environment Programme & World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 11 pp. www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Socotra%20revised.pdf
  • UNEP/WCMC (2008b): Galápagos Islands National Park and Marine Reserve Ecuador. UNESCO Fact Sheet World Heritage Sites – Protected Areas and World Heritage. United Nations Environment Programme & World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 15 pp. www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Galapagos.pdf
  • Van Damme K. De Geest P. (2006): Case Study 2. Diksam Road and Eriosh’s unique archaeology and biology. P. 350. In: C. Cheung & L. DeVantier, Socotra – a natural history of the islands and their people (K. Van Damme, ed.). – Odyssey Books and Guides, Airphoto International Ltd., Hong Kong
  • Van Damme K. (2009): Socotra Archipelago. P. 846–851. In: R. G. Gillespie & D.A. Clague (Eds), Encyclopedia of Islands. – University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles (California)
  • van der Duim R. Caalders J. (2002): Biodiversity and Tourism: Impacts and Interventions. – Annals of Tourism Research 29: 743–761
  • Vellend M. Verheyen K. Jacquemyn H. Kolb A. van Calster H. Peterken G. Hermy M. (2006): Extinction debt of forest plants persist for more than a century following habitat fragmentation. – Ecology 87: 542–548
  • Vitousek P. M. d’Antonio C. M. Loope L. L. Rejmanek M. Westbrooks R. (1997): Introduced species: a significant component of human-caused global change. – New Zealand Journal of Ecology 21: 1–16
  • Ward D. (2009): The Biology of Deserts. The Biology of Habitats Series. – Oxford University Press, New York, 339 pp
  • Watkins G. Cruz F. (2007): Galápagos at aisk: A socioeconomic analysis of the situation in the archipelago. – Puerto Ayora (Ecuador), Charles Darwin Foundation, 19 pp
  • Watts D. (1993): Long-term environmental influences on development in islands of the Lesser Antilles. – Scottish Geographical Magazine 109: 133–141
  • Weeks L. Morris M. McCall B. Al-Zubairy K. (2002): A recent archaeological survey on Soqotra. Report on the preliminary expedition season, January 5th–February 2nd 2001. – Arabic archaeology and epigraphy 13: 95–125
  • Whittaker R. (1998): Island biogeography. Ecology, evolution, and conservation. – Oxford University Press, New York, 285 pp
  • WHO (2005): World Malaria Report 2005. WHO/HTM/MAL/2005.1102. World Health Organisation and Unicef, 294 pp
  • Wikelski M. Foufopoulos J. Vargas H. Snell H. (2004): Galápagos birds and disease: invasion pathogens as threats for island species. – Ecology and Society 9: 5
  • Wirth T. Oggier P. Baur B. (1999): Effect of road on dispersal and genetic population structure in the land snail Helicella itala. – Zeitschrift für Ökologie und Naturschutz 8: 23–29
  • Woodroffe R. Ginsberg J. R. (1998): Edge effects and the extinction of populations inside protected areas. – Science 280: 2126–2128
  • Wranik W. (1998): Faunistic notes on Soqotra Island. P. 135–198. In: H. J. Dumont (Ed.), Soqotra: Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Soqotra Island: Present & Future. – United Nations Publications, New York
  • Wranik W. (2003): Fauna of the Socotra Archipelago. Field Guide. – Universität Rostock (Germany), 542 pp
  • Zajonz U. Khalaf M. Krupp F. (2000): Costal fish assemblages of the Socotra Archipelago. p. 127–170. In: M. Apel & K. I. Hariri (Eds), Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity of the Socotra Archipelago. Marine Habitat, Biodiversity and Fisheries Surveys and Management. Progress Report of Phase III. – Senckenberg Research Institute, Frankfurt a.M
  • Zandri E. (2006): Case study 1. Hadiboh–Qalansiyah road and Ditwah Lagoon. p. 348–349. In: C. Cheung & L. DeVantier, Socotra – a natural history of the islands and their people (K. Van Damme, ed.). – Odyssey Books and Guides, Airphoto International Ltd., Hong Kong
  • Zavelata E.S. Hobbs R.H. Mooney H.A. (2001): Viewing invasive species removal in a whole-organism context. – Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16: 454–459
  • Zhang K. Douglas B.C. Leatherman S. P. (2004): Global Warming and Coastal Erosion. – Climate Change 64: 41–58
  • Zimmerman H. G. Cuen M. P. S. Y. (2004): Prickly pear, the other face of cactus pear. – Acta Horticulturae 728: 289–295

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Download PDF

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.