Reflection on science competence-based curriculum implementation in Sub-Saharan African countries

ABSTRACT

Based on the qualitative data gathered from the existing literature pertaining to science curriculum with analytical and critical research designs, this article considers the implementation of the science Competence-Based Curriculum (CBC) in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. The study findings reveal that even though the CBC has been introduced in different SSA countries to enhance the quality of education, the science curriculum is still implemented in traditional ways. Consequently, CBC is not effectively addressing socio-economic needs as intended, at both individual and national level. The authors are concerned with how CBC is being implemented in other SSA countries that recently have adopted this kind of curriculum and how it will be implemented in other SSA countries that are planning to embrace it. In this paper, the authors suggest ways the new ideas could be introduced and reflect on how CBC can be implemented in SSA countries that share socio-economic and environmental similarities. They finally strongly recommend the establishment of special ‘laboratory’ schools or science education centres as well as school-based communities of practice to enhance teachers’ content knowledge and nurture contemporary teaching methods for the successful implementation of the new ideas.

KEYWORDS:

• Competence-based curriculum
• science curriculum implementation
• Sub-Saharan Africa
• reflection

Introduction

This paper examines how science Competence-Based Curriculum (CBC), as well as learner-centred curriculum or pedagogy, was implemented in some Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries and explores common challenges associated with their implementation. We then give our thoughts on curriculum adoption and on appropriate implementation strategies for the science education in SSA countries, Rwanda included. Finally, we suggest possible ways by which means the new ideas could be introduced in the context of this study, thereby contributing to the realization of national socio-economic development goals.

A current global concern for developing countries is to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which, in turn, support aspirations for socio-economic development. Nevertheless, achieving these goals seems to be difficult for nations in SSA due to the lack of employable skills and generic competences amongst graduates of profession programmes (Maodzwa-taluvinga & Cross, 2012; Mulder et al., 2006; Rwanda Education Board, 2015; Tilya & Mafumiko, 2010). As a solution, developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, such as Zambia, Tanzania, South Africa, Rwanda, Nigeria, Kenya, and Ethiopia, have already undertaken ambitious Competence-Based Education (CBE), while others are contemplating following suit.

CBE and CBC are interchangeably used in this paper since CBC derives from CBE. In CBE, the curriculum is derived from the analysis of desirable, practical skills, roles, or competencies, and that certifies student progress on the basis of the demonstrated performance of those skills, roles, or competencies (Collins & O’Brien, 2011). CBC takes learning to higher levels by providing challenging and engaging learning experiences which require deep thinking rather than memorization (Rwanda Education Board, 2015). Besides a CBC approach to education, there is a concept of competence which is defined as the ability to perform tasks and roles required to expected standards. In a vocational context, competence is conceived as the capability to perform the relevant tasks of given profession using set of knowledge acquired throughout the training programme (Mulder et al., 2006).

The concept of competence has a long history, starting even prior to the work of Plato. The concept means to arrive at something, but is also translated as the quality of being (cap)able or able to achieve something (Mulder et al., 2006). The concept of competence is seen as a set of skills, knowledge, and behaviours that an individual needs in order to perform tasks at school and in the world of work (Mosha, 2012). Thus, CBE is similar to OBE or Curriculum 2005 embraced by South Africa, since all these curricula focus on the product rather than process, with subtle differences in the description of outcomes and competences (Albanese et al., 2008). The word competence, on the one hand, is broadly summarized into knowledge, skills, understanding, values, and attitudes essential for all students to succeed in and beyond their schooling (Lawson & Williams, 2007). An outcome, on the other hand, according to Spady and Marshall (1994), is not a value, attitude, feeling, belief, activity, assignment, goal, score, as many people believe; it is, however, a clear, observable demonstration of student learning that occurs after a significant set of learning experiences. They highlight that an OBE outcome defines what skills and qualities they want students to have, whereas a competency is a determination of what skills and qualities someone needs to use in his or her life when performing job (Albanese et al., 2008).

Since school curricula are clearly aligned with competencies that focus and arrange everything in the education system around what are essential for all students to successfully do at the end of their learning experiences, instruction and assessment should also make sure that learning focuses on these goals (Spady, 1994). CBE or OBE is intended, by its content as well as objectives, to equip students with employable skills and generic competences which will enable them to fit into the contemporary world through a learner-centred pedagogy as the theorists of the curriculum like Charters, Bobbit, Kilpatrick, Rugg, Caswell and Tyler advocate. The curriculum should be learner-centred to respond to learners’ needs and interest through an expected set of learning objectives and content matter.

CBE was introduced in school curricula by means of learner-centred pedagogy (LCP). The latter was criticized as flying in the face of the reality of both teachers and learners in SSA countries (Chisholm & Leyendecker, 2008; Schweisfurth, 2011; Verspoor, 1989, 2008). In addition, CBC, like the learner-centred curriculum, was implemented in an undesirable way dominated by teacher-centred pedagogy of ‘chalk and talk’ and learners’ memorization of facts (Ampadu, 2012; Ikeda & Matsubara, 2017; Ovute et al., 2015; Oyoo, 2013; SMASSE Rwanda, 2009; UNESCO, 2004), which contradicts the intended ideal of CBC and LCP in which learners are expected to play an active role in the learning process (National Curriculum Development Centre, 2006; Rwanda Education Board, 2015). The end goal is that they develop competencies needed after leaving schools (Lawson & Williams, 2007; Mosha, 2012).

Many difficulties were found in the decision to adopt and implement CBC or CBE. Mainly reality of education systems in SSA countries was ignored. These realities include: teacher factors such as tardiness and absenteeism (Verspoor, 2008); difficulty in perception of the new ideas like inquiry-based teaching and learning, which is at first found by teachers to be difficult (Krajcik et al., 2000); limited knowledge and understanding of the new ideas such as LCP (Nsengimana et al., 2017; Chisholm & Leyendecker, 2008; HakiElimu, 2012; Rogan & Aldous, 2005); the diversity of schools in terms of physical resources, leadership and teachers (Rogan & Grayson, 2003); limited teacher capacity and experience (Schweisfurth, 2011); few predispositions towards new ideas, in their pre-service and in-service preparation (Audet & Jordan, 2003). Additionally, Kennedy (1996) pointed out that teachers are sometimes asked to give more than they have. For example, they will not only be asked to change their practices, but also to change previously held attitudes and beliefs, regardless of the subsequent preparation not always being available.

These studies of the challenges impeding the effective implementation of the curriculum because of neglecting the context led us to think how they could be alleviated in implementing science CBC in SSA countries. Thus, the question now is ‘what lessons can the SSA countries that are planning to adopt a competence-based science curriculum learn from those which have already implemented competence-based science curriculum as well as those which have implemented a learner-centred pedagogy?’ We pose this question as there appears to be little in the way of guidance concerning what can be done and how to proceed with implementation given the realities on the ground.

Methodology

The research revisited the available empirical and theoretical literature about CBC in general and particularly on its implementation with the emphasis on LCP in science subjects, written in English regardless of the language used in the country that was the source of information. The reviewed literature was purposefully selected from Sub-Saharan African countries, including Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania, South Africa, Rwanda, Nigeria, Namibia, Malawi, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Botswana on the assumption that secondary schools in these countries share socio-economic and environmental contexts.

The selected papers mostly studied CBE or OBE. They vary from the nature of CBE/OBE, why it was adopted, and how it is implemented in science subjects. In addition, studies pertaining to LCP in science subjects were selected because using the concept of competence in the development of professional education started short time ago. It appeared to be mingled with other educational ideas including the validation of prior learning and new theories of learning such as authentic learning, social constructivism, and knowledge construction (Mulder et al., 2006).

The choice of science subjects is based on its significant role in socio-economic growth as acknowledged by many countries, particularly developing world. A total of 57 articles and government documents pertaining to science curriculum implementation and curriculum in general were considered. Six were about education in general, 12 were basically on CBC, and 12 on CBC implementation, and 27 were specifically on science curriculum implementation through LCP. This literature corresponded to the key objectives of this review since they informed how CBC and LCP were being implemented and what can be done to promote successful implementation.

The articles were examined according to the three constructs of the theoretical framework developed by Rogan and Grayson (2003). The findings are presented based on the three constructs: profile of implementation, capacity to innovate, and outside influences and their sub-constructs. The framework was chosen because of its appropriateness to the context of the study as well as to science curriculum and its ability to frame the discussion.

Findings

Profile of science curriculum implementation

Regarding the classroom interaction, as the sub-construct of this construct, studies conducted in different parts of SSA countries such as West and central and Eastern and Southern Africa countries like Cameroun, Ghana, Mali, Togo, Burundi, Rwanda, Swaziland, Botswana, and Tanzania revealed poor quality of teaching and learning particularly of science subjects owing to the lack of change in teaching practices. Most teachers relied on lecture-type and ‘chalk and talk’ pedagogy, which promotes memorization and the regurgitation of the facts and ideas heard or read (Dembélé & Miaro, 2003). Such practices are at odds with the ones intended by science curricula which embrace LCP with its active methods aimed at deepening students’ thinking through providing challenging and engaging learning experiences (Rwanda Education Board, 2015).

Teacher-centred methods have persisted even in cases when hands-on activities prepared by Zambian local teachers were used (Ikeda & Matsubara, 2017). These authors also reported on teacher-led responses given straightaway after the teacher’s question. As stated by Ikeda and Matsubara, the applied questioning techniques did not promote the understanding of either science content or scientific thinking, since the questions simply confirmed the teacher’s statements. Such teacher-centred practices were not limited to Zambia as they were also noticed in Kenya. Oyoo (2013) noticed few experiments performed by students in Kenya as their teaching and learning consisted mainly of ‘chalk and talk’ lectures, leading to cramming of science content which is regurgitated in paper and pencil examinations. Such teaching and learning practices as well as assessment are at low levels at which teaching and learning of science should be realized as the highest level is when learners are actively engaged in designing and doing open investigations to meet their needs and provide explanations or theories under teacher guidance (Rogan & Grayson, 2003).

What was noticed in Kenya was also observed in Rwanda (Nsengimana et al., 2014; SMASSE Rwanda, 2009). Similarly, in South Africa, Onwu and Kyle (2011) reported that science was still being taught from the perspective of normal logical positivism, with more emphasis on the mastery of abstract concepts and principles rather than of inquiry-based learning or open-ended learner-centred investigations, specific to science teaching and learning (Rogan & Grayson, 2003).

Concerning science practical work as a sub-construct in the profile of curriculum implementation, most teachers in Sub-Saharan region remained traditional in their teaching regardless of the introduction of a new curriculum (UNESCO, 2004). Practical work performed by Kenyan students was insufficient due to inadequate science laboratories and equipment (Oyoo, 2013). Nsengimana et al. (2014) found that the inclusion of science societal issues was limited to the lowest level as the teaching was focused on passing national examinations rather than on the utilization of knowledge in solving real life problems. Lack of integration of science to students’ daily life situations was also noticed in Kenya secondary schools (Oyoo, 2013). The failure to integrate theory and practice is attributed to the shortage of relevant teaching and learning resources both in teacher training programmes and in secondary education (Bainton et al., 2016). Little connection with the day-to-day live experiences of students was also reported in South Africa (Onwu & Kyle, 2011). From the theory of curriculum implementation, the highest level (level 4) in integrating the aspect of science society is when students actively undertake a scientific project in their local community aiming to cope with a particular problem or to achieve specific need (Rogan & Grayson, 2003).

Capacity to innovate

The capacity to innovate, according to Rogan and Grayson (2003), describes how each sub-construct could look like for effective implementation of the curriculum. However, in general, all the revisited literature revealed that the implementation of the science curriculum is influenced or impeded by the factors hereunder presented.

Teacher’s factors

In many developing countries, including South Africa, the weakness of subject matter knowledge, limited knowledge of the new teaching strategies, lack of experience in teaching, and avoiding collaboration with their peers so as not to expose their weaknesses are characteristics of teachers (Ossai, 2004; Rogan & Grayson, 2003). In Ethiopia, the scarcity of professional teachers was noticed (Tegegne & Hunde, 2010). Likewise, many teachers did not understand the requirements of the new curriculum (HakiElimu, 2012), who documented the lack of adequate knowledge and skills on how to use learner-centred approach or on how to design authentic assessment tasks that focus on the competences to be developed by students (Paulo & Tilya, 2014). Lack of teaching skills and weakness in implementing advanced teaching methods that would include activities that foster critical thinking and problem solving was noticed in Nigeria (Esiobu, 2000; Ezekannagha, 2008).

Teachers in Zambia, like those in Tanzania, Nigeria, and Malawi, have limited teaching capacity when it comes to asking questions that require students to use their minds – to analyse and judge a particular topic or activity so that they may learn (Ikeda & Matsubara, 2017). Apart from inappropriate understanding and skills related to the implementation of the curriculum, teachers in SSA complained about being required to cover too much content in a short period of time (Tilya & Mafumiko, 2010) and of having overcrowded classrooms (Schweisfurth, 2011).

According to Rogan and Grayson (2003), effective implementation of the new ideas requires teachers to be overqualified, have excellent knowledge of the subject matter, be committed to teaching, willing to change, be collaborative, be able to improvise, and to show both local and national leadership in professional development activities.

School ethos and management

Headteachers in many Sub-Saharan African schools differ in their experience and in their understanding of subject content matter and of the new curricula; therefore, their ability to support innovation is problematic. Few schools have some functional form of structured school-based professional development, while others do not as the case in Rwanda. The school leadership should promote participation and collaboration of all stakeholders, devise plans to support innovation, to monitor changes, and to share a common school vision (Rogan & Grayson, 2003).

Physical resources

In Tanzania, physical resources were characterized by the shortage of relevant learning materials, such as students’ textbooks, laboratory supplies and equipment, models, and charts (Paulo & Tilya, 2014). Such shortages of physical teaching and learning resources were also identified in Malawi, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Zambia, Namibia and Kenya (Omoifo, 2012; Oyoo, 2013; O’Sullivan, 2004; Tegegne & Hunde, 2010). For the successful implementation of the science curriculum, as informed by the theory of curriculum implementation, facilities such as a well-equipped science laboratory, library or resource centre, adequate curriculum materials apart from textbooks, photocopying facilities, computers and models are needed (Rogan & Grayson, 2003).

Learner factor

In Ethiopia the learners were found lack of interest (Tegegne & Hunde, 2010) and displayed low academic ability and difficulties in expressing themselves in English, as was the case in some schools in Rwanda (Author et al., 2014). These findings are likely to be similar in other schools in SSA. Also, students might come from a home environment which is not conducive for them to study since they might lack help or places to do homework (Rogan & Grayson, 2003).

As a key element for effective implementation of the curriculum, learners should be fluent in the English as a medium of instruction, take responsibility for their own learning, and be eager to undertake new ways of learning (Rogan & Grayson, 2003).

Outside influences

Design of professional development

Regarding the sub-constructs of the outside influences which are supposed to support the implementation by building the capacity of teachers, studies revealed that teacher training for the most part of South Africa does not yet confront the embedded assumptions in teachers, nor does it provide workable alternatives conducive to the classroom context facing teachers in the most challenging environments (Spreen & Vally, 2010). Another factor found in Tanzania is that student teachers are not exposed to learner-centred methods, while they were in their respective pre-service teacher training institutions. Their courses did not provide the training which would enable these prospective teachers to develop competences (Kafyulilo et al., 2012).

Likewise, the lack of pre-service or in-service training led to limited capacity of teachers as it prevents teachers from implementing CBC as intended (Schweisfurth, 2011). According to Rogan and Grayson (2003), for this sub-construct and the one of capacity to support innovation, the communities of practice should take full responsibility for their own continued professional development, and for school governance and curriculum implementation, and then call on outside support when needed. They also state that the typical model consisting of ongoing school-based and directed professional in-service educational training is needed.

Change forces

In Rwanda, outside change forces include the Rwanda Education Board (REB), District Education Officers (DEOs), and Sector Education Inspectors (SEIs). They are responsible for promoting the change in Rwanda primary and secondary schools through monitoring and supporting the schools in a top-down approach (MINEDUC, 2013). All of them should be proactive in developing communities that create shared values and goals concerning educational practice and commitment to put these into practice (Rogan & Grayson, 2003). However, some policy makers and implementers who should support and monitor schools in Tanzania, surprisingly, had poor understanding of the curriculum documents (Tilya & Mafumiko, 2010). To make change happen, mutual collaboration of all educational stakeholders is needed as argued by (Fullan, 2001). He added that many things could be done if researchers, policymakers and administrators work ‘with’ teachers rather than work ‘on’ them. The policy makers should not advocate things for teachers or schools that they are not capable of practising themselves.

Physical resources

Physical resources are argued to be one of the major factors affecting the capacity to support innovation (Rogan & Grayson, 2003). They state that for effective implementation of the curriculum, the aforementioned sub-construct should completely provide and cover the minimum if not all physical resources that are required to effect the intended change. Despite all efforts in developing and distributing schools physical resources, the syllabus as one of teaching resource important for teachers, was still overloaded with a long list of content areas and was designed in a way that competences to be developed by students, are indirectly related to the content to be taught (Verspoor, 2008). Additionally, many schools in developing countries of Africa were characterized by scarcity of teaching and learning resources such as students’ books, laboratory supplies and equipment, models, and charts (Verspoor, 2008).

Support to learner

From the theory of curriculum implementation, to make innovation take place in classroom, learners should also be supported both academically and personally. This can be done through providing bursaries, lunches, field trips and or by extra lessons (Rogan & Grayson, 2003).

The literature revealed gaps in three constructs of the theory of curriculum implementation as presented above, the profile of curriculum implementation and the one of capacities to innovate was rated lower than levels suggested in the theory of curriculum implementation (Rogan & Grayson, 2003). Therefore, to improve science education in Sub-Saharan Africa, authors reflect and discuss on what is practical and how it can be done.

Reflection and discussion

The aim is to develop student competences wherever a CBC is adopted or is contemplated. Therefore, although the curriculum is well designed with praiseworthy aims, the question is still how its good ideas could be translated into classroom reality. As Porter (1980, p. 75) says ‘the people concerned with creating policy and enacting the relevant legislation seldom look down the track to the implementation stage’. With this in mind, a number of researchers have concentrated on the problem of implementation, including Rogan and Grayson (2003), who have developed a theory of curriculum implementation with reference to developing countries. They provided suggestions that policy makers could consider while planning to revise the school curricula to enable a smooth implementation.

Considering the above, it seems that attention is not yet given to the implementation of the innovative ideas, particularly in SSA countries since gaps between what is intended by the curriculum and what is achieved in practice are still there. In terms of the Rogan and Grayson framework, we found only basic, low levels were attained in both the constructs of capacity to support innovation and the profile of curriculum implementation. With that regard, authors, in the next paragraphs, reflect and discuss a proposed blueprint on how to address the problem of poor science CBC implementation taking into account teachers’ constraints and limited resources for/in teaching and learning science. This study focuses on what is most likely to bring about positive classroom change in SSA countries since the teaching of science should engage learners and respond to their needs and interests.

Policy adjustments

Towards curriculum implementation; especially in developing countries where there is tendency to adopt large-scale programmes and neglect implementation (Verspoor, 1989) since policy makers, politicians, and even donors who often focus on the ‘what’ of desired educational change, neglecting the ‘how’ (Porter, 1980, p. 75), there is a need for some changes in policy if the implementation is to happen. This could be done as suggested in the following paragraphs.

In spite of external pressure, policy makers and politicians should first agree with partners to accept ideas and programmes to having money and resources that would help not simply in disseminating innovative ideas but particularly in realizing what the new ideas are and how they can be put into practice.

As there is a remarkable diversity in schools across many of SSA countries, policy makers and politicians should come up with appropriate ways geared to local contexts which is not ‘one size fits all’ strategy of putting into practice the new ideas often if not always in many SSA countries is not always work in many less resourced schools.

A strong pre-service and in-service teacher training corporate

As teachers and prospective teachers continue or will continue to teach in the way that they were/are taught, either by imitation or by being made to conform to an existing school culture; there is a need to revamp the teacher education being at pre-service and in-service. The revamp in teacher training will help teachers at first understand adopted policies so that they can effectively put them into practice as De Feiter et al. (1995) argued that for curriculum change to occur, the rationale of its adoption and ways through which it will be implemented have to be well addressed.

In the case of CBC, governments in SSA counties and their partners should invest more in teacher education so that implementers understand the rationale behind the adoption and how implementation should be undertaken. Investment in human resources is one of the conditions that have been highlighted in order to bring about an effective change in classrooms (Carron & Châu, 1996). The need for more investment is accentuated due to the fact that the quality of teaching and learning in developing countries is questionable, even prior to CBC, as teachers persisted with their traditional teaching styles attributed to how they had been trained. Changing their teaching methods is ‘a complex and unpredictable event as well as a process that depends upon many other factors such as their past experience, willingness, abilities, social conditions and instructional support’ (Ekiz, 2004, p. 344). There is a need to foster both strong pre-service and in-service teacher training since professional development programmes do provide experiences. Wee et al. (2007, p. 83) highlighted that ‘by participating in professional development programmes, teachers develop their overall knowledge about inquiry and ability to develop a more acute vision of inquiry-based application in classroom’. These programmes should be aligned with new changes so that they could help the SSA prospective science teachers develop a clear sense of moral purpose and not to become disheartened as a result of ineffective implementation since teaching at its core is a moral profession (Fullan, 1993); and also equip them with relevant knowledge and skills, and then expose them to the contemporary teaching and learning methods and practices so that they can gain new educational ideas and be competent. This is because, apart from mutual collaboration and personnel vision, mastery is one of the conditions for effective classroom change.

The effective implementation of new ideas depends mostly on teachers’ factors, which according to Rogan and Grayson (2003) include their own background, training, level of confidence, and commitment to teaching. This is possible only when teachers become aware that their beliefs drive their practices and influence students’ learning that they re-evaluate and adjust their teaching in ways that are more inclusive and equitable, leading them to review their perceptions of scientific inquiry (Christodoulou et al., 2009).

With such training, teachers’ attributes, such as appropriate qualifications, excellent knowledge of content matter, commitment to teaching, willingness to change, improvisation skills and collaboration, understanding of the vision of innovation as well as the school and its plan, local and national leadership in professional development activities for effectively implementing the curriculum (Rogan & Grayson, 2003), will be enhanced. By being more exposed to such teaching, and equipping them with knowledge and skills, authors believe that science teachers will not cling to familiar practices, but will change their classroom culture and climate. They will encourage students to generate ideas, raise questions, and interact and reflect on their own learning as stipulated by the new curriculum. Within such a classroom, encouragement and valuing the active participation of all will be promoted and room for participants to provide constructive criticism, intellectual rigour, and challenge ideas will be enhanced. As has been noted, a good classroom climate is one of the components of effective teaching (Tweed, 2009). In order to enhance and create a good classroom climate, formal practices within school communities of practice as well as informal ones such as science museums, zoos, aquariums which present inquiry experiences to the public should help in teacher professional development (Audet & Jordan, 2003).

School community of practice

Since in the past, SSA countries have used a top-down approach to the dissemination of new ideas and practices, an approach which is costly and therefore sporadic, a different strategy needs to be adopted – one that is cost-effective and helps to sustain and support innovation. The proposed strategy ‘school community of practice’ is defined as a group of colleagues who meet regularly to discuss their work, to think of solutions to challenges and share good practices (Rwanda Education Board, 2017). By this means, it might be possible to change classroom practices that will persist through collaboration, whether on a large or small scale. How the teachers who are familiar with lecturing, teaching for recall, and pen and paper type of assessment are going to change their classroom culture through a school community of practice? As authors believe, useful learning gives learners, teachers in this case, the opportunity to learn through discussing on challenging issues encountered in their daily practices. They then proceed to suggest or identify best practices from their own experience or observations and provide constructive and descriptive feedback responding to CBC implementation.

Teachers need to learn from each other through ‘lesson study’ as one of the well-known, school-based community of practice that has improved mathematics and science teachers’ knowledge and skills in terms of lesson planning, teaching, assessment as well as subject content knowledge in many countries that are implementing such an approach – particularly Japan (Burghesb & Robinson, 2009). Furthermore, a community of practice will help science teachers from SSA countries to improve their knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes pertained to both science curriculum and science subject content which were found to be a major stumbling block as the lesson study applied in one school in Rwanda helped both teachers and learners in effective teaching and learning of science (SMASSE Rwanda, 2009). Jansen (1998) pointed out that teachers might be able to promote learner-centred approach to teaching if they jointly plan classroom lessons, and then go on to observe, analyse, and refine the lessons that they have created.

Effective implementation of a community of practice requires the input from different stakeholders who should support each other and work hand in hand for improving the profile of science curriculum implementation. So, a community of practice is suggested as a means for bringing a sustainable change in schools and classrooms as there is evidence that professional development programmes do provide experiences that help practitioners develop their overall knowledge about a particular concept and skills that enable effective classroom practices (Wee et al., 2007).

The new teachers being made to conform to an existing school culture may be another problem. In addressing such problem, we are suggesting that all beginning teachers need to be placed in special ‘laboratory’ schools or science education centres where new ideas are practised so that they get support from experienced school leaders and teachers. Also, special communities of practice should be organized for them during their beginning years. The question arises about how these communities would be organized and sustained. To this, school headteachers and science teachers who have been trained should kick-start school communities of practice, monitor and regularly support them. Such ways of starting from top-down and bottom-up approaches were also suggested for its sustainability and long-term improvement as Rogan and Grayson (2003) highlighted. Next question is how much and what type of innovation needs to be put in place in both the training phase and early years of teaching (or in laboratory school)? At this point, the concept of a Zone of Feasible Innovation or Implementation (ZFI) which comprises

a collection of teaching strategies that go beyond current practices but are feasible given the existing resources available to a teacher or group of teachers and the prevailing environment of the school in terms of its abilities to foster and sustain innovation. (Rogan, 2007, p. 441)

This ZFI would be established in both for the teacher education phase and for a specific school. Teachers would identify what to be done in ZFI based on what they are capable for examples some contemporary teaching methods and means that would help them to do so. In the case of SSA, the ‘Think-Write and Share’ strategy, for example, would well fit in schools that are short of science teaching equipment.

Think-Write and Share

Since effective science teaching and learning is about thinking scientifically, individually or collectively, the opposite of what has been observed in SSA countries, the ‘Think-Write and Share’ strategy is claimed to promote effective learning in SSA schools where the teaching and learning of science is impeded by the scarcity of teaching and learning resources. This suggested strategy is aligned with one of evidence-based recommendations compiled by Education Endowment Foundation (2018) for improving secondary science. It builds on the ideas learners bring to the lesson which then are developed into the scientifically correct ones through strategies such as cognitive conflict. Understanding science requires learner engagement as they resolve the conflict individually or collaboratively and are challenged by their teacher. This approach is supported by testimonies from students of a secondary school in Rwanda: ‘I become more confident in studying science by sharing ideas with my colleagues’; ‘before using this way in teaching us, I was used to memorizing the notes given without personnal thinking on a scientific concept or topic, now I become a critical thinker in whatever I do in science lessons’; ‘ by asked to write down what I think or what comes in my mind, I don’t know where ideas are coming from … this way of learning is impeccable’; ‘by being challenged by a teacher, I develop a sense of challenging also my classmates and teacher too, we develop a mindset of arguments’.

To effectively apply this strategy, the first step is for individual thinking based on a challenging task, followed by writing down what the individual learner thinks about the given task and then sharing ideas with colleagues in small or large groups. In the second step, an individual learner is given time to rethink the given task as well as to reflect on colleagues’ ideas, do more research to deepen thinking and to write down ideas again. In the last step, learners again share ideas obtained in the second step and by doing so, some ideas of learners may be changed by hearing those of their colleagues. In such a way, learners are more engaged in the learning process and are likely to develop twenty-first century skills such as critical thinking, interpersonal communication, teamwork, and presentation skills, which are useful in the learners’ future life as individuals and members of the society. The ‘Think-Write and Share’ strategy is not far from typical inquiry-based learning applied in science learning since it comprises a number of steps with the aim of promoting thinking.

The ‘Think-Write-Share’ strategy should not be regarded a single stand-alone method of teaching as teachers could use other active methods such as problem-solving, inquiry-based, jigsaw or collaborative learning, volleyball method, project-based method, and memory card methods for effective teacher-student and student-student interaction. It should be regarded as part of an overall effort based on what, where and how learners are capable for doing and what and how teachers are capable for effectively facilitating students’ learning.

Regarding practical work or experimentation which is emphasized in science CBC implementation, the ‘Think-Write-Share’ strategy could improve the existing common techniques for science lessons, such as guided or recipe-based strategy where resources were present. Science teachers are, therefore, advised to plan and conduct theoretical experiments since what is very important is to give the opportunity to learners to think critically and scientifically. In the same strategy, learners can be given time to think and design practical experiments by focusing on what is locally available in order to make the learning contextualized. However, for effectively improving the practical classes, authors suggest the establishment of science centres where teachers could go for experience and updates on science practical work.

If the teaching is shifted from traditional to contemporary methods, such as ‘Think-Write and Share’, assessment practices for enhancing students’ learning need to be reconsidered. As there is shift in teaching, this should be reflected in assessment which is said to be a single most effective tool teachers use for raising students’ achievement (Black & Wiliam, 1998). In this regard, science teachers should move from simple to complex or open-ended and problem-solving and use challenging questions which evoke broad ranging discussions and thinking among students. They should also move from recall-based pen and paper type of assessment to various formative assessment practices that are learner-centred and which are acknowledged to promote competence development rather than simply repeating back (Price et al., 2011). Assessment also needs to be considered as a way of improving the learning of slow learners (Black & Wiliam, 1998). According to Price et al. (2011), formative assessments strategies which are effective for promoting the twenty-first century learning in emerging market countries include portfolios, rubrics, performance-based, student self-assessment, peer-assessment and student response systems.

Formative assessment techniques will reinforce the strengths of learners and address their weaknesses by providing quick, descriptive and constructive feedback so that they may improve their way of doing and behaving. By also considering both factual and procedural knowledge in the assessment, learners can marry classroom knowledge to their daily life situation which will increase their interest towards science as well as using acquired knowledge and skills in solving day-to-day problems.

The ‘Think-Write and Share’ strategy that authors suggest is thought to effectively stimulate learners’ motivation, critical thinking and promote transversal competences which are the skills for holistic human development that can be used in a wide variety of situations and work settings. Those skills include interpersonal skills featuring communication, teamwork, organizational, and presentation skills; intra-personal skills (“e.g. self-discipline, enthusiasm, perseverance and self-motivation”; global citizenship skills such as tolerance, openness, respect for diversity, and intercultural understanding (UNESCO, 2014). Those skills are normally developed through problem-solving, project-based, inquiry-based, collaborative learning, interactive learning, and experimental learning.

Changing in ways of teaching is not enough for adequate implementation of science competence-based curriculum. Another way for effectively implementing science CBC is through a new type of lesson plan that emphasizing challenging and competence-based tasks.

Changing lesson plan emphasizing challenging and competence-based tasks

To effectively implement the CBC in science subjects at secondary school level with reference to the theory of curriculum implementation, science teachers in SSA countries need to improve their ways of interacting with students, conduct practical science experiments, assess students, and integrate science in society, as described in what follows.

For effective interaction in classroom, science teachers are firstly requested to change their lesson plans to improve a column of activities to be undertaken by the learners. For this, challenging and competence-based activities or tasks which are in line with the learning targets or competences prescribed in the curriculum documents have to be planned because those activities are recognized to help students develop workplace competences as well as socio-economic skills needed for the twenty-first century. These activities should be different from those which some teachers in many SSA countries employ consisting mostly of recall questions which are teacher-led responses that promote rote learning (Ikeda & Matsubara, 2017). They need to be framed by what and why questions, essential for students’ understanding and actions be able to do, as stipulated by CBC.

The shift from teaching that transfers the knowledge to the teaching that gives opportunities for learners to create, produce and construct knowledge as highlighted in the pedagogy of freedom (Freire, 1998) is needed for helping learners be innovative so that they can create their own jobs and be competitive instead of being job seekers as people who are needed for the twenty-first century. The suggested activities should be planned by paying attention to learners’ preparedness and prior knowledge and issues of access and diversity (Tweed, 2009). Adequate time and structure for sense making should also be given to students as highlighted by Tweed (2009) since teachers in SSA countries were found to take most of the classroom time in teaching rather than giving more time to learners for individual, collaborative learning. Additionally, learning through experience was highlighted by UNESCO (2014) to develop transversal skills such as critical thinking, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills, rather than simply obtaining knowledge. Therefore, teachers need to provide an environment in which learners take an active role in learning.

Conclusion

If the Sub-Saharan African countries wish to meet SDGs in addition to their own laudable goals, CBC should be implemented as intended. However, the gaps between the intended and implemented science curriculum were identified. To bring about classroom change, there is a need to bolster both pre-service and in-service programmes through the establishment of the institutional community of practices as well as school ‘laboratory’ where science teachers will learn from each other and find solutions to the problems they face.

We have developed a blueprint in which communities of practice will be implemented in pre-service and in-service teacher training through ‘laboratory’ schools or science education centres. Also, lessons plan that emphasize challenging and competence-based tasks are put into action and the outcomes evaluated in the future. If this succeeds a whole blueprint could be followed in other SSA countries in the implementation of CBC. ‘Think-write-and-share’ applied in a Rwandan context should be implemented as an example of ZFI. While awaiting the outcomes of other components of the blueprint, policy makers and other personnel in education system, should revitalize what they normally do so that they effectively support the capacity to innovate so that the change in the teaching, learning and assessment which are intended to bring change in students’ attitudes and academic achievement could take place.

Within this framework, the authors claim that the objectives of CBC, particularly that of producing competent students capable of solving day-to-day life problems as well as moving countries to attaining SDGs; undoubtedly be realized and will help nations to achieve their goals pertaining to socio-economic development.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks go to Professor John M. Rogan for his inspiration in science education as well as reviewing this paper and Professor Carol Merz Frankel for English language editing. We express our sincere appreciation to the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) for the financial support that allows the first author to present the original manuscript of this paper in Distance Education and Teachers’ Training in Africa (DETA) conference.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).