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Abstract
This essay surveys twentieth-century historical writing on the Middle East and more particularly on the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century. It explores the pioneering works of the post-World War II era and then points to the shift from exclusively political to social and economic history beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, the increasing use of archival documents, and the inclusion in the historical narrative of women and minority populations, as well as the still-looming gaps in intellectual history. The essay's aim is to assess the century's key historiographical accomplishments while suggesting directions for the future.
Notes
ensp; 1. See, for example, E. LeRoy Ladurie, The Ancien Régime: A History of France, 1610–1774, trans. M. Greengrass (Oxford and Cambridge, MA, 1996), esp. pp.304–17; J. Lynch, Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808 (Oxford and Cambridge, MA, 1989), esp. Ch.1 and 10; J.J. Norwich, Venice: The Greatness and the Fall (London, 1981), Ch.26; G. Parker and L.M. Smith (eds.), The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century (London and New York, 1997), esp. Introduction and Chs.2, 5, and 8; J.M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period (Cambridge, 1987), pp.158–60, 170–73, 191–3, 219–27.
2. H.A.R. Gibb and H. Bowen, Islamic Society and the West: A Study of the Impact of Western Civilization on Moslem Culture in the Near East, Vol.1, Islamic Society in the Eighteenth Century, 2 parts (London and New York, 1950–57).
3. A.H. Lybyer (1876–1949), The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent, Harvard Historical Studies, Vol.18 (New York, 1913).
4. N. Itzkowitz, ‘Eighteenth-Century Ottoman Realities’, Studia Islamica, 16 (1962), pp.73–94.
5. N. Itzkowitz, ‘Eighteenth-Century Ottoman Realities’, Studia Islamica, 16 (1962), pp.86–90; idem, ‘Mehmed Raghib Pasha: The Making of an Ottoman Grand Vezir’, Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1959; J. Hathaway, The Politics of Households in Ottoman Egypt: The Rise of the Qazdağlıs (Cambridge, 1997), p.94.
6. L.T. Darling, Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: The Ottoman Financial Administration, 1560–1660 (Leiden, 1994); S. Faroqhi, ‘Crisis and Change, 1590–1699’, Pt. 2 of H. Inalcik with D. Quataert (eds.), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire (Cambridge, 1994).
7. B. McGowan, ‘The Age of the A c yāns, 1699–1812’, Pt. 3 of Inalcik with Quataert, An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire.
8. L.P. Peirce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (New York and Oxford, 1993), pp.24–7, 91–149.
9. S. Meservey, ‘Feyzullah Efendi: An Ottoman Şeyhülislam’, Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1966; R.A. Abou-El-Haj, The 1703 Rebellion and the Structure of Ottoman Politics (Leiden, 1984).
10. A. Manna c , ‘Mered Naqīb al-Ashrāf bi-Yerushalayim, 1703–1705’, Cathedra, 53 (1989), pp.49–74; D. Ze'evi, An Ottoman Century: The District of Jerusalem in the 1600s (Albany, NY, 1996), pp.62–4.
11. M.C. Zilfi, The Politics of Piety: The Ottoman Ulema in the Post-Classical Age (1600–1800) (Minneapolis and Chicago, 1988), Ch.5.
12. H. Inalcik, ‘The Socio-Political Effects of the Diffusion of Fire-Arms in the Middle East’, in V.J. Parry and M. Yapp (eds.), War, Technology, and Society in the Middle East (London, 1975); G. Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500–1800, 2nd edn (Cambridge, 1996 [1988]).
13. P.M. Holt, ‘The Career of Kūchūk Muhammad (1676–94)’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 26 (1963), pp.269–87; A. Raymond, ‘Une “révolution” au Caire sous les Mamelouks: La crise de 1123/1711’, Annales Islamologiques, 1 (1966), pp.95–120; Hathaway, Politics of Households, pp.20, 42, 66–70.
14. M.M. Aktepe, Patrona İsyanı (1730) (Istanbul, 1958).
15. Hathaway, Politics of Households, pp.55, 57–8, 62–5; Ahmed Kâhya c Azebān al-Damūrdāshī (fl. c. 1750), Al-durra al-musāna fī akhbār al-Kināna, British Museum, MS Or. 1073–4, pp.471–2.
16. M. Genç, ‘Osmanlı Maliyesinde Mālikāne Sistemi’, in O. Okyar and Ü. Nalbantoğlu (eds.), İktisat Tarihi Semineri (Ankara, 1975); idem, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Devlet ve Ekonomi (Istanbul, 2000); A. Salzmann, ‘An Ancien Régime Revisited: “Privatization” and Political Economy in the Eighteenth-Century Ottoman Empire’, Politics and Society, 21 (1993), pp.393–423.
17. This is despite Salzmann's rather ambiguous references to ‘the Middle East’, which seems for the most part to mean Syria and, in that case, typically Aleppo.
18. S.H. Longrigg, Four Centuries of Modern Iraq (Oxford, 1925; reprinted in Beirut, 1968); H. St. J.B. Philby, Arabia of the Wahhābīs (London, 1928).
19. P.M. Holt, ‘Ottoman Egypt (1517–1798): An Account of Arabic Historical Sources’, in P.M. Holt (ed.), Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt (London, 1968); idem, ‘Al-Jabartī's Introduction to the History of Ottoman Egypt’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 25 (1962), pp.38–51; idem, ‘The Pattern of Egyptian Political History from 1517 to 1798’, in Holt, Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt.
20. P.M. Holt, Egypt and the Fertile Crescent, 1516–1922: A Political History (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1966).
21. S.J. Shaw, The Financial and Administrative Organization and Development of Ottoman Egypt, 1517–1798 (Princeton, 1962); idem, ‘The Financial and Administrative Organization and Development of Ottoman Egypt (1517–1798)’, Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1959.
22. A.K. Rafeq, The Province of Damascus, 1723–1783 (Beirut, 1966).
23. A. Hourani, ‘Ottoman Reform and the Politics of Notables’, in W.R. Polk and R.L. Chambers (eds.), The Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago, 1968); reprinted in A. Hourani, The Emergence of the Modern Middle East (Berkeley, 1981), and A. Hourani, P.S. Khoury, and M.C. Wilson (eds.), The Modern Middle East: A Reader (London, 1993).
24. E.R. Toledano, ‘The Emergence of Ottoman-Local Elites in the Middle East and North Africa (1700–1900)’, in I. Pappé and M. Ma'oz (eds.), Middle Eastern Politics and Ideas: A History from Within (London and New York, 1997); A. Hourani, ‘The Ottoman Background of the Modern Middle East’, in Hourani, The Emergence of the Modern Middle East.
25. D. Crecelius, The Roots of Modern Egypt: A Study of the Regimes of cAlī Bey al-Kabīr and Muhammad Bey Abū al-Dhahab, 1760–1775 (Minneapolis and Chicago, 1981); J.W. Livingston, ‘ c Alī Bey al-Kabīr and the Mamlūk Resurgence in Ottoman Egypt, 1760–72’, Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1968; idem, ‘The Rise of Shaykh al-Balad c Alī Bey al-Kabīr: A Study in the Accuracy of the Chronicle of al-Jabartī’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 32 (1970), pp.283–94; idem, ‘ c Alī Bey al-Kabīr and the Jews’, Middle Eastern Studies, 7 (1971), pp.221–8; Rafeq, The Province of Damascus; M.L. Meriwether, ‘Urban Notables and Rural Resources in Aleppo, 1770–1830’, International Journal of Turkish Studies, 4 (1987), pp.55–73.
26. See, for example, Necdet Sakaoğlu, Anadolu Derebeyi Ocaklarından Köse Paşa Hanedanı (Ankara, 1984).
27. Saltmann, ‘An Ancient Régime Revisited’; E.D. Akarlı, ‘Provincial Power Magnates in Ottoman Bilād al-Shām and Egypt, 1740–1840’, in A. Temimi (ed.), La vie sociale dans les provinces arabes à l'époque ottomane (Zaghouan, Tunisia, 1988).
28. For example, V.P. Mutafchieva and S.A. Dimitrov, Sur l'état du système des tīmārs des XVIIe–XVIIIe ss. (Sofia, 1968); V.P. Mutafchieva, ‘L'institution de l'âyânlık pendant les dernières décennies du XVIIIe siècle’, Études Balkaniques, 2–3 (1965), pp.233–47; B. Cvetkova, ‘Recherches sur le système d'affermage (iltizām) dans l'empire ottoman au cours du XVIe–XVIIIe s. par rapport aux contrées bulgares’, Rocznik Orientalistyczny, 27/2 (1964), pp.111–32.
29. C. and B. Jelavich (eds.), The Balkans in Transition: Essays on the Development of Balkan Life and Politics since the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley, 1963; reprinted in Hamden, CT, 1974); P.F. Sugar, Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804, A History of East Central Europe, Vol.5 (Seattle, 1977, reprinted 1996).
30. N.G. Svoronos, Le commerce de Salonique au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1956); M. Lascaris, Salonique à la fin du XVIIIe siècle d'après les rapports consulaires français (Athens, 1939).
31. A. Raymond, Artisans et commerçants au Caire au XVIIIe siècle, 2 vols. (Damascus, 1973–74).
32. N.E. Gallagher, Approaches to the History of the Middle East: Interviews with Leading Middle East Historians (Reading, 1999), p.79; see also Raymond's contribution to the present collection.
33. The only just comparison is probably to the late Robert Mantran's work on seventeenth-century Istanbul: Istanbul dans la seconde moitié du XVIIe siècle: Essai d'histoire institutionelle, économique, et sociale (Paris, 1962).
34. A. Cohen, Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: Patterns of Government and Administration (Jerusalem, 1973); A. Marcus, The Middle East on the Eve of Modernity: Aleppo in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1989).
35. N. Hanna, Habiter au Caire: La maison moyenne et ses habitants aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Cairo, 1991); idem, An Urban History of Bulāq in the Mamlūk and Ottoman Periods (Cairo, 1983); D. Behrens-Abouseif, Azbakiyya and Its Environs: From Azbak to Ismail (Cairo, 1985); C. Establet and J.-P. Pascual, Familles et fortunes à Damas: 450 foyers damascains en 1700 (Damascus, 1994). See also A. Raymond, Le Caire des janissaires: L'apogée de la ville ottomane sous cAbd al-Rahmān Katkhudā (Paris, 1995).
36. A.A. c Abd al-Rahīm, Al-rīf al-Misrī fī al-qarn al-thāmin c ashar wa-awālī al-qarn al-tāsi c c ashar (Cairo, 1974); idem, ‘Land Tenure in Egypt and Its Social Effects on Egyptian Society, 1799–1813’, in T. Khalidi (ed.), Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East (Beirut, 1984); K.M. Cuno, ‘Egypt's Wealthy Peasantry, 1740–1820: A Study of the Region of al-Mansūra’, in Khalidi, Land Tenure and Social Transformation.
37. B. Masters, The Origins of Western Economic Dominance in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the Islamic Economy in Aleppo, 1600–1750 (New York, 1988); B. Doumani, Rediscovering Palestine: Merchants and Peasants in Jabal Nablus, 1700–1900 (Berkeley, 1995); H. Fattah, The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia, and the Gulf, 1745–1900 (Albany, NY, 1997); T.A.J. Abdullah, Merchants, Mamlūks, and Murder: The Political Economy of Trade in Eighteenth-Century Basra (Albany, NY, 2001); D.R. Khoury, State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire: Mosul, 1540–1834 (Cambridge, 1997).
38. Y. Nagata, Materials on the Bosnian Notables (Tokyo, 1979); idem, Some Documents on the Big Farms (Çiftliks) of the Notables in Western Anatolia (Tokyo, 1976); idem, Muhsinzade Mehmet Paşa ve Âyânlık Müessesesi (Izmir, 1999); idem, Tarihte Âyânlar: Karaosmanoğulları Üzerinde bir İnceleme (Ankara, 1997).
39. E. Frangakis-Syrett, The Commerce of Smyrna in the Eighteenth Century (1700–1820) (Athens, 1992).
40. K. Barbir, Ottoman Rule in Damascus, 1708–1758 (Princeton, 1980); Rafeq, Province of Damascus; Hathaway, Politics of Households; T. Shuval, Algiers dans le premier moitié du XVIIIe siècle: Cadre urbain et caste militaire (Paris, 1998).
41. M.R. Hickok, Ottoman Military Administration in Eighteenth-Century Bosnia (Leiden, 1997); see also M. Todorova, ‘The Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans’, in L.C. Brown (ed.), Imperial Legacy: The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East (New York, 1996).
42. I.C. Dengler, ‘Turkish Women in the Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age’, in L. Beck and N. Keddie (eds.), Women in the Muslim World (Cambridge, MA, 1978).
43. An exception in this regard is A. Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, Women and Men in Late Eighteenth-Century Egypt (Austin, TX, 1995).
44. Thus, Judith Tucker's work, though quite important for the field as a whole, focuses on Ottoman Syria and Palestine: J.E. Tucker, In the House of the Law: Gender and Islamic Law in Ottoman Syria and Palestine (Berkeley, 1998); idem, ‘Ties that Bound: Women and Family in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Nablus’, in N.R. Keddie and B. Baron (eds.), Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender (New Haven, CT, 1992).
45. M.C. Zilfi (ed.), Women in the Ottoman Empire: Middle Eastern Women in the Early Modern Era (Leiden, 1997); A. al-Azhary Sonbol (ed.), Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History (Syracuse, NY, 1996).
46. F. Davis, The Ottoman Lady: A Social History from 1718 to 1918 (New York, 1986); R. Lewis, Everyday Life in Ottoman Turkey (London, Batsford, and New York, 1971).
47. Thus, Avigdor Levy labels the period between roughly 1566 and 1839 ‘the era of standstill and decline’ while Norman Stillman includes this period under the rubric ‘the long twilight’; see A. Levy, ‘Introduction’, in A. Levy (ed.), The Jews of the Ottoman Empire (Princeton, 1994); N.A. Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book (Philadelphia, 1979).
48. R.M. Haddad, Syrian Christians in Muslim Society: An Interpretation (Princeton, 1970), pp.10–68.
49. M. Salati, Ascesa e caduta di una famiglia di Ašrāf Sciiti di Aleppo: I Zuhrāwī o Zuhrī-zāda (Rome, 1992); Y. Nakash, The Shīcīs of Iraq (Princeton, 1994), pp.13–25.
50. A good example is Cohen, Palestine in the Eighteenth Century, in which the status of non-Muslims forms part of a much larger survey of provincial administration.
51. D. Crecelius, ‘The Emergence of the Shaykh al-Azhar as the Pre-Eminent Religious Leader in Egypt’, in Colloque international sur l'histoire du Caire, assembled under the auspices of the Ministry of Culture of the Arab Republic of Egypt (Cairo, 1969); idem, ‘Nonideological Responses of the Egyptian c Ulamā’ to Modernization’, in N.R. Keddie (ed.), Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions since 1500 (Berkeley, 1972); A. Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, ‘A Socio-Economic Sketch of the c Ulamā’ in the Eighteenth Century’, in Colloque international sur l'histoire du Caire; idem, ‘The c Ulamā’ of Cairo in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries’, in Keddie, Scholars, Saints, and Sufis; idem, ‘The Wealth of the c Ulamā’ in Late Eighteenth-Century Cairo’, in T. Naff and R. Owen (eds.), Studies in Eighteenth-Century Islamic History (Carbondale and Edwardsville, IL, 1977).
52. Raymond, Artisans et commerçants, Vol.2, pp.432–3; G. Baer, ‘Popular Revolt in Ottoman Cairo’, Der Islam 54/2 (1977), pp.213–42; Marsot, ‘The c Ulamā’ of Cairo in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries’.
53. Gibb and Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, Vol.1, Pt.2, pp.110–13.
54. M.C. Zilfi, The Politics of Piety: The Ottoman Ulema in the Post-Classical Age (1600–1800) (Minneapolis and Chicago, 1988); see also R. Repp, ‘The Altered Nature and Role of the Ulema’, in Naff and Owen, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Islamic History.
55. M. Winter, ‘The Ashrāf and Niqābat al-Ashrāf in Egypt in Ottoman and Modern Times’, Asian and African Studies (Haifa), 19/1 (1985), pp.17–41; Marsot, ‘The c Ulamā’ of Cairo in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries’, pp.151–2.
56. c Abd al-Rahmān al-Jabartī (1754–1825), c Ajā'ib al-athār fi'l-tarājim wa'l-akhbār, ed. H.M. Jawhar et al., 7 vols. (Cairo, 1958–67), Vol.3, pp.83, 87.
57. B.G. Martin, ‘A Short History of the Khalwatī Order of Dervishes’, in Keddie, Scholars, Saints, and Sufis, pp.297–8, 301; E. Bannerth, ‘La Khalwatiyya en Égypte: Quelques aspects de la vie d'un confrérie’, Mélange de l'Institut Dominicain d'Études Orientales, 8 (1964–66), pp.1–74.
58. D. Crecelius, ‘The Waqf of Muhammad Bey Abū al-Dhahab in Historical Perspective’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 23 (1991), pp.57–81; H. c Abd al- c Azīz Badr and D. Crecelius, ‘The Awqāf of al-Hājj Bashīr Āghā in Cairo’, Annales Islamologiques, 27 (1993), pp.291–311; idem, ‘The Waqfs of Shāhīn Ahmad Āghā’, Annales Islamologiques, 26 (1992), pp.79–114.
59. On this subject, see J. Hathaway, ‘The Wealth and Influence of an Exiled Ottoman Eunuch in Egypt: The Waqf Inventory of c Abbās Āghā’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 37 (1994), pp.293–317.
60. Hathaway, ‘Wealth and Influence’; idem, ‘Jean-Claude Flachat and the Chief Black Eunuch: Observations of a French Merchant at the Sultan's Court’, in S.J. Webber and M.R. Lynd (eds.), with K. Peterson, Fantasy or Ethnography? Irony and Collusion in Subaltern Representation (Columbus, OH, 1996).
61. F. Rahman, Islam, 2nd edn (Chicago, 1979 [1966]), pp.205–6.
62. R.S. O'Fahey and B. Radtke, ‘Neo-Sufism Reconsidered’, Der Islam, 7 (1993), pp.52–87.
63. J.O. Voll, ‘Linking Groups in Networks of Eighteenth-Century Revivalist Scholars: The Mizjājī Family in Yemen’, in N. Levtzion and J.O. Voll (eds.), Eighteenth-Century Renewal and Reform in Islam (Syracuse, NY, 1987); N. Levtzion, ‘The Eighteenth Century: Background to the Islamic Revolutions in West Africa’, in Levtzion and Voll, Eighteenth-Century Renewal and Reform.
64. For example, Knut Vikør, Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad b. c Alī al-Sanūsī and His Brotherhood (Evanston, IL, 1999).
65. Suggestive in this regard is L. Bjørneboe, ‘In Search of the True Political Position of the c Ulamā’: An Analysis of the Chronicles of c Abd al-Rahmān al-Jabartī (1753–1826) [sic ]’, Ph.D. diss., University of Southern Denmark, 2002.
66. B. Flemming, ‘Die Vorwahhabitsche Fitna im osmanischen Kairo 1711’, in İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı'ya Armağan (Ankara, 1975); R. Peters, ‘The Battered Dervishes of Bāb Zuwayla: A Religious Riot in Eighteenth-Century Cairo’, in Levtzion and Voll, Eighteenth-Century Renewal and Reform.
67. J. Hathaway, ‘Egypt in the Seventeenth Century’, in M.W. Daly (ed.), The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol.2, The Modern Period: From the Ottoman Conquest to the End of the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, 1998), p.57. Flemming has recently revisited this incident in a paper entitled ‘The Story of the Cairene “Fitna” of 1711’, presented at the conference ‘Chronicler's Text, Rebel's Voice’, University of Leiden, January 2002; she points out that the participants' ideology, like that of the Kadızadelis, fits squarely within Hanafī orthodoxy.
68. Raymond, Artisans et commerçants, Vol.1, pp.156 ff., 177.
69. D. Behrens-Abouseif, Azbakiyya and Its Environs; Hathaway, Politics of Households, Ch.6; M. Tuchscherer, ‘Le pèlerinage de l'émir Sulaymân Gâwîš al-Qazduġlî, sirdâr de la caravane de la Mekke en 1739’, Annales Islamologiques, 24 (1988), pp.155–206.
70. M. Tuchscherer (ed.), Le commerce du café avant l'ère des plantations colonials: Espaces, réseaux, sociétés (XV–XIX siècle) (Cairo, 2001); U. Freitag and W.G. Clarence-Smith (eds.), Hadhramī Traders, Scholars, and Statesmen in the Indian Ocean, 1750s–1960s (Leiden, 1997).
71. R.A. Abou-El-Haj, ‘Ottoman Diplomacy at Karlowitz’, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 87 (1967), pp.148–52.
72. Salzmann, ‘Ancien Régime’, p.405.
73. Notably N.M. Penzer, The Harem: An Account of the Institution as It Existed in the Palace of the Turkish Sultans, with a History of the Grand Seraglio from Its Foundation to Modern Times, 2nd edn (New York, 1993 [1965]), pp.102, 194–5, 257; see also Pl. XX.
74. F.M. Göçek, Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change (New York, 1996); idem, East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1987). See also n.48 above.
75. E. Eldem, French Trade in Istanbul in the Eighteenth Century (Leiden, 1999); Tuchscherer, Le commerce du café.
76. V.H. Aksan, An Ottoman Statesman in War and Peace: Ahmed Resmî Efendi (1700–1783) (Leiden, 1995). See also N. Itzkowitz and M. Mote (eds. and trans.), Mubadele: An Ottoman–Russian Exchange of Ambassadors (Chicago, 1970).
77. Aksan, Ahmed Resmî Efendi, pp.xi, 161–3, 167–9, 185–200.
78. Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn, s.v. ‘Ahmad III’, by H. Bowen; Aksan, Ahmed Resmî Efendi, pp.201–5.
79. See W.F. Reddaway (ed.), Documents of Catherine the Great: The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instruction of 1767 in the English Text of 1768 (Cambridge, 1931; reissued 1971); J.P. LeDonne, The Russian Empire and the World, 1700–1917: The Geopolitics of Expansion and Containment (New York, 1997); Aksan, Ahmed Resmî Efendi, pp.125, 143.
80. Crecelius, Roots of Modern Egypt, pp.172–6; Livingston, ‘The Revolt of c Alī Bey’; Rafeq, Province of Damascus. See, in contrast, Crecelius, ‘Russia's Relations with the Mamlūk Beys of Egypt in the Eighteenth Century’, in F. Kazemi and R.D. McChesney (eds.), A Way Prepared: Essays on Islamic Culture in Honor of Richard Bayly Winder (New York, 1988).
81. Itzkowitz, ‘Mehmed Raghib Pasha’, pp.76–9, 117–19.
82. Hathaway, Politics of Households, pp.44–6, 101–6; Ahmed Pasha (Cezzâr), Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century: The Nizâmnâme-i Mısır of Cezzâr Ahmed Pasha, ed. and trans. S.J. Shaw (Cambridge, MA, 1962); Rafeq, Province of Damascus, Ch.6.
83. Rafeq, Province of Damascus, pp.234, 253–68; Crecelius, Roots of Modern Egypt, pp.80–91.
84. J. Deny, Sommaire des archives turques du Caire (Cairo, 1930).
85. 3 Numaralı Mühimme Defteri (966–968/1558–1560); 5 Numaralı Mühimme Defteri (973/1565–1566); 6 Numaralı Mühimme Defteri (972/1564–1565); 12 Numaralı Mühimme Defteri (978–979/1570–1572) (Istanbul, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996). See also M.A. Ünal (ed.), Mühimme Defteri 44 (Izmir, 1995); N. Aykut et al. (eds.), Mühimme Defteri 90 (Istanbul, 1993).
86. See nn.58–9, above. Documents for earlier and later centuries have been published, among them U. Heyd (trans.), Ottoman Documents on Palestine, 1552–1615 (Oxford, 1960); D. Ihchiev (comp.), Turski D'rzhavni Dokumenti za Osman Pazvanoğlu Vidinski (Turkish Documents on Osman Pazvanoğlu from Vidin) (Sofia, 1909).
87. c Abd al-Rahmān al-Jabartī, Al-Ta'rīkh al-musamma cAjā'ib al-athār fī'l-tarājim wa'l-akhbār, ed. M.A. Qāsim, 4 vols. in 2 (Bulaq, 1880); Muhammad Khalīl al-Murādī (1759–91), Kitāb silk al-durar fī a c yān al-qarn al-thāni c ashar, 4 vols. in 1 (Bulaq, 1874–83).
88. Al-Jabartī, c Ajā'ib al-athār fī'l-tarājim wa'l-akhbār; Haydar Ahmad al-Shihābī (1761?–1835?), Lubnān fī c ahd al-umarā’ al-Shihābiyyīn, eds. A. Rustum and F.E. Boustany, 3 vols. (Beirut, 1969).
89. Al-Jabartī, Ta'rīkh c Ajā'ib al-athār fī'l-tarājim wa'l-akhbār, 3 vols. (Beirut, 1970); idem, c Ajā'ib al-athār fī'l-tarājim wa'l-akhbār, 3 vols. (Beirut, 1978).
90. T. Philipp and M. Perlmann (trans.), Al-Jabartī's History of Egypt: c Ajā'ib al-athār fī'l-tarājim wa'l-akhbār, 4 vols. in 3 (Stuttgart, 1997); J. Cuoq (trans.), Journal d'un notable du Caire durant l'expédition française, 1798–1801 (Paris, 1979); S. Moreh (trans.), Al-Jabartī's Chronicle of the First Seven Months of the French Occupation of Egypt (Leiden, 1975, reissued as Napoleon in Egypt: Al-Jabartī's Chronicle of the French Occupation, 1798 [Princeton, 1993]).
91. Al-Jabartī, c Ajā'ib al-athār fī'l-tarājim wa'l-akhbār, ed. A.A. c Abd al-Rahīm and A.M.I. Ramadan, 4 vols. (Cairo, 1997–98).
92. Haydar Ahmad al-Shihābī, Ghurar al-hisān fi akhbār abnā’ al-zamān (Beirut, 1980); see also n.88 above.
93. Al-Murādī, Silk al-durar fī acyān al-qarn al-thāmin cashar (Beirut, 1988); idem, Silk al-durar fī acyān al-qarn al-thāmin cashar, ed. M.A. Shāhīn, 4 vols. in 2 (Beirut, 1997).
94. See D. Crecelius (ed.), Eighteenth-Century Egypt: The Arabic Manuscript Sources (Claremont, CA, 1990).
95. Ahmed Çelebi (Ahmad Shalabi) b. c Abd al-Ghani, Awdah al-ishārāt fī man tawalla Misr al-Qāhira min al-wuzarā’ wa'l-bāshāt, ed. F.M. Māwī (Cairo, 1977); idem, Awdah al-ishārāt fī man tawalla Misr al-Qāhira min al-wuzarā’ wa'l-bāshāt, ed. A.A. c Abd al-Rahīm (Cairo, 1978); Ahmed Kâhya c Azebān (Ahmad Katkhudā cAzabān) al-Damūrdāshī, Kitāb al-Durra al-musāna fī akhbār al-Kināna: Fī akhbār mā waqa c a bi-Misr fī dawlat al-Mamālīk, ed. A.A. cAbd al-Rahīm (Cairo, 1989); idem, Al-Damūrdāshī's Chronicle of Egypt, 1688–1755: Al-Durra al-musāna fī akhbār al-Kināna, ed. and trans. D. Crecelius and A. Bakr (Leiden, 1991).
96. Şemdanizade Fındıklılı Süleyman Efendi, Şemdanizade Fındıklılı Süleyman Efendi Tārīhi, ed. M. Aktepe, 4 vols. in 3 (Ankara, 1976).
97. Şemdanizade Fındıklılı Süleyman Efendi, Şemdanizade Fındıklılı Süleyman Efendi Tārīhi, ed. M. Aktepe, 4 vols. in 3 (Ankara, 1976), Vol.3, p.99.
98. Salzmann, ‘Ancien Régime’, esp. p.394.
99. On this point see, for example, Khoury, State and Provincial Society, Ch.5.
100. See, for example, Fattah, Politics of Regional Trade, pp.23–41.
101. S. Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: Culture and Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire (London, 2000; German version Munich, 1995), pp.6–7.
102. See, for example, M.A. Fay, review of Hathaway, Politics of Households, Middle East Journal, 52 (1998), pp.282–4, and the pointed use of the adjective ‘indigenous’ in N. Hanna, Making Big Money in 1600: The Life and Times of Ismail Abu Taqiyya, Egyptian Merchant (Syracuse, NY, 1998), pp.xxii, 19, 44, 95, 136, 167.