Sharing, arguing, and seeking recognition: International congresses, meetings, and physical education, 1867–1915

Abstract

Hundreds of international congresses now are held in fields ranging from the biosciences and medicine to sociology, pediatrics, sport sciences, and many other research and clinical fields. Beginning with the 1851 London ‘Great Exhibition of Works of Industry' at least twelve major International Expositions had been held by 1915. These soon became venues for international congresses dealing with a wide array of subjects, one of which was physical education. The topic was also discussed at quadrennial international congress on hygiene and demography, the fifteenth of which was held at Washington, DC in 1912. At international congresses on school hygiene, the first of which took place at Nuremburg in 1904, physicians and scientists as well as educators gave considerable attention to health and physical education (then often referred to as ‘gymnastics'). This paper examines these and other international meetings at which these matters were discussed and debated between 1867 and 1915.

Notes

[1] See www.jkl.fi/lang/eglish/links/international_congresses_in_jyvaskyla, accessed May 2007.

[2]www.issp.2005.com, accessed May 2006.

[3]www.icsspe.org, accessed May 2006. The importance of international partnerships has been emphasized many times. See for example Chaker, ‘International Partnership’, 4. On the organization's history see Bailey, Sport in the Service of Physical Education and Sport.

[4] Geiger, To Advance Knowledge, 22; McClelland, The German Experience of Professionalization; Haber, The Quest for Authority and Honor; Fye, The Development of American Physiology.

[5]http://www.who.int/movefor, accessed May 2006. See for example, Benedict, The Anthropology of World's Fairs; Mandell, Paris 1900; World's Fairs from London 1851 to Chicago 1893.

[6] Evans, ‘Growing Pains’, 86.

[7] Cattell, ‘Address of the President’; Buchner, ‘The Third International Congress of Psychology’.

[8] Brill, International Congresses on Education of the Deaf.

[9] Franklin, ‘A Short History of International Congresses of Physiologists’, 321. Franklin's account includes the years 1889 to 1935. The International Union of Physiological Sciences was finally founded in 1953.

[10] Fenn, History of International Congresses of the Physiological Sciences.

[11] Albers et al., International Mathematical Congresses, 2–9, 44. Following the 1893 congress Göttingen's Felix Klein, whose address was titled ‘The Present State of Mathematics,’ had held a colloquium at Northwestern University. Of the 25 attendees, one was a woman, Mary F. Winston, AB, honorary fellow, University of Chicago. The second congress was held in 1897 in Zurich, known for its abilities to ‘promote international interests’.

[12] MacAloon, This Great Symbol, 128; Müller, Von Paris bis Baden-Baden; Müller, One Hundred Years of Olympic Congesses.

[13]‘General Survey of the Exhibition’, 232; Freese, ‘Report on School-Houses’, 5–13. These comments appear in the sub-section titled ‘Physical Development – Gymnasiums’.

[14] McCabe, Illustrated History of the Centennial Exhibition, 753–61.

[15] Buisson, Rapport sur l'Instruction Primaire à l'Exposition Universelle, 205–33; 445–9. The best approach, according to the Rapport, was to be found in James Pyle Wickersham's 1864 book School Economy: A Treatise on the Preparation, Organization, Employments, Government, and Authorities of Schools. Quite advanced for its time, Wickersham's book never seems to have been cited in any American physical education text.

[16] Riant, ‘De l'Hygiène Scolaire’; Dally, ‘De l'Éducation Corporelle en France’.

[17]Hippolyte Taine's Notes sur l'Angleterre (1871) had brought the notion of ‘national character’ and English education to the attention of his countrymen. For some Frenchmen sport seemed to offer a means to secure ‘a national revival’ following their country's humiliating defeat in the Franco-Prussia War. During the 1870s the Havre Athletic Club was established by a small group of Oxford and Cambridge graduates; Englishmen living the Bordeaux founded the Bordeaux Athletic Club; and ‘English education’ was initiated at the École Monge, a private school in Paris. Such developments grew during the 1880s. La Vie de Collège en Angleterre by André Laurie (pseudonym for Paschal Grousset), which reflects a number of themes that had been popularized by Thomas Hughes's Tom Brown's Schooldays (1857), appeared in 1880. Its frontispiece depicts manly oarsmen, swimmers, a young cricketer and Scottish highlanders. Such ideals would find greater expression in de Coubertin's L'Éducation en Angleterre (1888) and L'Éducation Anglais en France (1889).

[18] Simon, ‘L'Éducation’, 678. The published article contains a number of notations of applause and cheers from the audience: de Coubertin, Une Campagne de Vingt-et-Un Ans, ch. 4.

[19]Congrès International pour la Propogation des Exercises Physiques dans l'Éducation, Exposition Universelle Internationale de 1889, 3–6; Congrès des Exercises Physiques, Exposition Universelle de 1889, 5–14.

[20]Congrès International … 1889, 7–15; Congres des Exercises Physiques … 1889, 14–33.

[21] Ministère de l'Instruction Publique et des Beaux-Arts, Travaux de la Commission de Gymnastique, Section 77, 119–39.

[22] Harris, ‘Preface’, iii–v.

[23] See Park, ‘Edward M. Hartwell and Physical Training’.

[24] Hartwell, ‘Physical Education’.

[25] See Park, ‘The Rise and Demise of Harvard's BS Program’.

[26] Fitz, ‘Psychological Aspect of Exercises’; Wood, ‘Some Unsolved Problems’.

[27]Congrès International de l'Éducation Physique … 1900, 10–11; ‘Address of M. Georges Demeny’.

[28]Congrès International de l'Éducation Physique… 1900, 12–21.

[29] Ibid., 22–51.

[30] Wood, ‘International Congress of Physical Education’.

[31] Benedict, The Anthropology of World's Fairs, 60.

[32] Sullivan, ‘Physical Culture’.

[33]‘Olympic Lecture Course’; ‘Report of the St Louis Conference’.

[34]‘News Notes’.

[35] De Coubertin, ‘Avant-Propos’, 5; Bonnameaux, ‘The Second International Convention’.

[36] Bonnameaux, ‘The Second International Convention’.

[37]Deuxième Congrès International de l'Éducation Physique, 7, 18–19.

[38] Andrade, Conferencia Teróico-Practica sobre Educación Física.

[39]Troisième Congrès International de l'Éducation Physique.

[40] Berry, ‘International Congress of Physical Education, Paris’.

[41] Diggle, ‘Presidential Address’; Kuborn, ‘L'Hygiene Scolaire en Belgique’; White, ‘Physical Education’; Broman, ‘Physical Exercises in Elementary School’.

[42] Rubner, ‘The Nutrition of the People’.

[43] Von Noorden, ‘The Choice of Foodstuffs in Relation to Disease’; Langworthy, ‘Cost and Nutritive Value of Foods’.

[44] Carlsen, ‘Outlines of the Progress of Hygiene’.

[45]Transactions of the Fifteenth International Congress on Hygiene and Demography, vol. 2, 640–74. In the large hall adjoining the exhibition more than a hundred lectures and film showings were scheduled. These included such things as ‘The Boy Scout Movement’ and ‘Public Health, Outdoor Schools, Athletic Carnival, and Midwinter Sports’.

[46]Bericht über den I. Internationalen Kongress für Schulhygiene, vol. 1, 10–36. John Bergstrom (professor of pedagogy, Indiana University), psychologist G. Stanley Hall (president of Clark University) and William T. Porter (head of Harvard Medical School's Physiology Laboratory) were among the representatives from the United States.

[47]Bericht über den I. Internationalen Kongress für Schulhygiene, vol. 1, 105, 106–8, 118–19, 160–208.

[48] Schmidt, ‘Schulbäder’.

[49]Bericht über den I. Internationalen Kongress für Schulhygiene, vol. 3, 25–7, 73–81; 109–16; 117–27.

[50] Earl of Crewe, ‘Opening Speech to the Congress’; Brunton, ‘Inaugural Address’.

[51] Welldon, ‘The Effect of School-Training’; Doleris, ‘Les Sports au Point de Vue de l'Hygiene’.

[52]Transactions of the Second International Congress on School Hygiene, vol. 1, 239–324.

[53] Ibid., vol. 3, 872–939; 940–89.

[54] Dufestel, ‘Des Mensurations Anthropométriques Chez l'Enfant’; Baumann, ‘The Effect of Altitude Upon School Children’.

[55] Gulick, ‘Athletics from the Biologic Viewpoint’.

[56] Gulick, ‘The Place and Limitations of Folk-Dancing’. For an account of educator, physician, and dedicated supporter of women's rights Alice Profé, see: Pfister, ‘“Breaking Bounds”’.

[57]Troisième Congrès International d'Hygiène Scolaire, vol. 2, 43–54, 101–13, 233–7, 371–93, 405–16.

[58]Troisième Congrès International d'Hygiène Scolaire, vol. 2, 103–6, 374–5.

[59] Andrade, ‘L'Éducation Physique’.

[60] Chauveau, ‘La Santé de la Femme’.

[61] Downs, Childhood in the Promised Land.

[62]Troisième Congrès International d'Hygiène Scolaire, vol. 2, 940–56.

[63]‘Address of President Eliot’.

[64]‘Symposium by Society of Directors of Physical Education in Colleges’; ‘Meeting of the American Physical Education Association’.

[65] Radosavljevich, ‘Physical Measurements of Pupils’; Crampton, ‘Blood Ptosis’.

[66]‘Play and Athletics’.

[67] Barach, ‘Against Over-Athleticism’; Stokes, ‘The Effects of Athletics Upon Health’. For issues relating to ‘athlete's heart’ and related matters see Whorton, ‘“Athlete's Heart”’.

[68]‘Entertainment During Congress Week’.

[69]‘Scientific Exhibit’.

[70]‘Conference on School Hygiene’, British Medical Journal, 9 Aug. 1884, 297.

[71]‘International Health Exhibition: School-Hygiene’, British Medical Journal, 8 Nov. 1884, 925–6.

[72] Schmidt, ‘First Congress of Scientific Research’; Hollmann, ‘Sports Medicine’.

[73] Beyer, ‘The International Hygiene Exhibition at Dresden’.

[74] For a very useful discussion of early work in which scientists used athletes for experimental purposes, see Hoberman, Mortal Engines.

[75] Beyer, ‘The International Hygiene Exhibition at Dresden’, 119.

[76]For example, ‘“De-Germanizing” and Degeneration’, British Medical Journal, 27 Aug. 1904, 454–5.

[77]‘The Dresden Hygiene Exhibition’, British Medical Journal, 19 Nov. 1910, 1643–4.

[78] See Buytendijk, Ergebnisse der Sportärztlichen Untersuchungen; Compte Rendu, Congrès International … 1928; Park, ‘“Cells or Soaring”’.

[79] Houssay, ‘Twenty-First Congress’.

[80] Kitsuo Kato, Proceedings of International Congress of Sport Sciences, 1964, preface and 9–19.