Amateurism, Imperialism, Internationalism and the First British Empire Games

Abstract

The intersections between sport and empire, and between sport and the emergence of internationalism in the early twentieth century, have attracted much recent attention from historians. Less attention has been paid to how these relationships became intertwined. This article suggests that the interrelationship between imperialism and internationalism had a profound impact on sport in the interwar years, challenging Victorian and Edwardian ideals of amateurism. This argument is tested through a study of a signature imperial event founded in 1930, the British Empire Games. The first British Empire Games, held in Hamilton, Ontario, are often portrayed as a display of popular imperialism. This article suggests that while imperialism was certainly one aspect of the event, it was not the only one. The article examines the various meanings which organizers, participants and supporters attached to the Games. Local and national organizers in Canada used the Games to convey civic and national identities to the rest of the Empire. The athletes themselves were ambivalent about imperialism, placing the Games instead within the emerging international sporting community.

Amateurisme, impérialisme, internationalisme et les premiers Jeux de l'Empire Britannique

Le lien entre sport et empire et le rapport entre sport et émergence de l'internationalisme au tout début du XXe siècle ont récemment attiré l'attention des historiens. En revanche, la façon dont ces rencontres se sont produites a été peu étudiée. Cet article suggère que la relation entre impérialisme et internationalisme a eu un impact profond sur le sport dans l'entre-deux-guerres, discutant les idéaux Victorien et Edwardien d'amateurisme. Cet argument s'appuie sur l'étude d'un événement impérial fondé en 1930, les Jeux de l'Empire Britannique. Les premiers Jeux de l'Empire Britannique, qui ont eu lieu à Hamilton, en Ontario, sont souvent décrits comme une occasion d'exposition d'un impérialisme populaire. Cet article montre que, si l'impérialisme est certainement un des aspects de l'événement, il n'est pas non plus de seul. L'article examine les diverses significations que les organisateurs, les participants et les supporters attribuent à ces Jeux. Les organisateurs locaux et nationaux du Canada ont employé ces Jeux pour transmettre identité nationale et identité civique au reste de l'Empire. Les athlètes se sont trouvés être eux-mêmes dans une position ambivalente quant à l'impérialisme, replaçant plutôt ces Jeux dans la communauté sportive internationale alors émergente.

Amateurismo, imperialismo, internacionalismo y los primeros Juegos del Imperio Británico

Los puntos de contacto entre deporte e imperio, y entre deporte y emergencia del internacionalismo a principios del siglo XX, vienen siendo objeto de creciente atención por parte de los historiadores. Se ha prestado menos atención a la forma en que estas interrelaciones se cruzaron entre ellas. En este artículo se argumenta que la relación entre imperialismo e internacionalismo tuvo un impacto profundo en el deporte de entreguerras al poner en entredicho los ideales victorianos y eduardianos del amateurismo. Esta conclusión se ve confirmada por el estudio de un acontecimiento imperial por excelencia fundado en 1930, los Juegos del Imperio Británico. A menudo se afirma que los primeros Juegos, que tuvieron lugar en Hamilton, Ontario, fueron una exhibición de imperialismo popular. Este artículo propone que, si bien el imperialismo fue ciertamente un aspecto relevante del acontecimiento, no fue el único. El artículo examina los diversos significados que organizadores, participantes y seguidores otorgaron a los Juegos. Los organizadores canadienses, a nivel local y nacional, utilizaron los Juegos para comunicar al resto del Imperio ideas de identidad cívica y nacional. Los mismos atletas se mostraron ambivalentes en relación con el imperialismo, y situaron los Juegos en el marco de la naciente comunidad deportiva internacional.

Amateurismus, Imperialismus, Internationalismus und die Spiele des ersten britischen Weltreiches

Die Schnittpunkte von Sport und dem Imperium sowie des Sport und der Entstehung von Internationalismus im frühen 20. Jahrhundert haben kürzlich viel Aufsehen auf Seiten von Historikern erregt. Weniger Beachtung wurde der Tatsache geschenkt, wie die Verflechtung dieser Beziehungen zustande kam. Dieser Artikel legt die Vermutung nahe, dass die wechselseitige Beziehung zwischen Imperialismus und Internationalismus einen tiefgreifenden Einfluss auf den Sport in den Jahren zwischen den Weltkriegen hatte und damit die Viktorianischen und Edwardianischen Ideale des Amateurismus infrage stellte. Die Argumentation wird durch eine Studie gestützt, die sich mit einer charakteristischen imperialen Veranstaltung, die 1930 gegründet wurde, beschäftigt: den British Empire Games. Die ersten British Empire Games, die in Hamilton, Ontario, abgehalten wurden, werden oft als eine Zurschaustellung des volkstümlichen Imperialismus bezeichnet. Dieser Artikel deutet darauf hin, dass der Imperialismus zwar ein Aspekt der Veranstaltung war, jedoch nicht der Einzige. Der Artikel untersucht die verschiedenen Bedeutungen, die Organisatoren, Teilnehmer und Förderer den Spielen zuschrieben. Lokale und nationale Organisatoren in Kanada nutzten die Spiele, um dem Rest des Imperiums bürgerliche und nationale Identitäten zu vermitteln. Die Athleten selber waren zweigeteilter Meinung bezüglich des Imperialismus, ordneten die Spiele dagegen in die aufkommende internationale Sportgemeinschaft ein.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Greg Stott and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on this article, as well as the Social Science and Humanities Council of Canada for research funding.

Notes

[1] Only a few representative examples can be mentioned here. Guttmann addresses the intersection between internationalism and imperialism in Games and Empires. On international sport, see Keys, Globalizing Sport; Beck, Scoring for Britain; and Arnaud and Riordan, Sport and International Politics. On sport and empire, see Mangan (especially The Games Ethic, The Cultural Bond, and the essays in Part Two of Pleasure, Profit, Proselytism), McDevitt, ‘May the Best Man Win'; Hutchinson, Empire Games; and Chapter IV in Holt, Sport and the British.

[2] Mangan, ‘Duty unto Death’, 16–17.

[3] The Festival was originally planned for 1910. It was postponed due to Edward VII's death, and ultimately held in conjunction with George V's coronation celebrations in 1911. Minutes of the Festival of Empire Executive Committee, 22 Dec. 1909, 18; 16 Mar. 1910, 183, 215. British Library of Political and Economic Science, GB 0097 COLL MISC 0459. Dominion athletes came from Canada, Australia and New Zealand, though the majority of competitors were from British sporting clubs. Times, 26 June 1911, 14.

[4] Moore, ‘A Neglected Imperialist’, 259–60, 263–64; Moore, ‘The Pan-Britannic Festival’, 155.

[5] See Cannadine, Ornamentalism.

[6]‘Bobby Kerr’, Dictionary of Hamilton Biography, Vol. IV, 143.

[7] Hamilton did make less expensive recreational improvements to its harbour in the 1920s, notably the creation of new public beaches. See Cruikshank and Bouchier, ‘Dirty Spaces’, 69–71.

[8]‘British Empire Games Outlined to Members of Council Last Night’, Hamilton Herald, 12 Jan. 1929; ‘Special Concessions by Canadian Railways’, British Empire Games, Scrapbook, Vol. 1 (1929−), 4. Hamilton Public Library, Special Collections, R796.4 BRI v.1 CESH (hereafter BEG Scrapbook).

[9] Edwards competed for British Guiana again at the 1934 Empire Games in London, but continued to compete internationally for Canada, and his five (bronze) Olympic medals is still the Canadian record for the Summer Games. Speed-skater Cindy Klassen holds the overall record, with six medals in the Winter Games.

[10] Moore, ‘The Concept of British Empire Games’, 164.

[11]‘Expect “Greco Circus” to be Outstanding at BEG’, Hamilton Herald, 7 Aug. 1930.

[12] Harry J. Barclay, Honorary Secretary, Amateur Athletic Association–Manager, Canadian Olympic Team, Olympics in Amsterdam, 8 Aug. 1928. Commonwealth Games Association of Canada. National Archives Canada, MG 30 C164, Vol. 18 (hereafter CGAC); Carol McNeil, ‘Hamilton, Ontario. Canada: 1930. The Setting for the British Empire Games’, 11. Pamphlet File: Weaver. SPEC. Hamilton Public Library, Special Collections.

[13] Keys, Globalizing Sport, 45–56, 164–67; Beck, Scoring for Britain, esp. 131–34; Gounot, ‘Between Revolutionary Demands and Diplomatic Necessity’, 199–201.

[14]Times, 4 Feb. 1930, 7.

[15]‘Program and General Regulations of the BEG’, CGAC. Students were exempted from the residency requirements.

[16] Ungar, ‘Trenholme, Clementina (Fessenden)’.

[17] Thompson, The Empire Strikes Back, 302, n192; ‘British Empire Games, Hamilton, 1930’, Hamilton Public Library, Special Collections (hereafter HPLSC), 796.4 B777 CESH FOLIO.

[18] Bloomfield, ‘Drill and Dance as Symbols of Imperialism’, 81–82.

[19]‘The Sun Never Sets on the Games’, Hamilton Spectator, 8 July 1978.

[20]‘British Empire Games’, Johannesburg Star, n.d. BEG Scrapbook, 1–2.

[21]‘British Empire Games: Yesterday's Opening Ceremony in Ontario; Lord Burghley's success’, 17 Aug. 1930. BEG Scrapbook, 78.

[22] Moore, ‘The Concept of British Empire Games’, 149.

[23]‘Prince Can't Be Present At Games’, Hamilton Herald, 21 July 1930.

[24]‘Empire Games to be Opened by Willingdon’, Hamilton Herald, 6 Aug. 1930. Incoming and outgoing Canadian prime ministers R. B. Bennett and William Lyon Mackenzie King (Bennett had beaten King in the 7 Aug. election, but not yet taken office) both attended the opening ceremonies as well.

[25]‘Scottish Squad nattily attired’, n.d. BEG Scrapbook, 13.

[26]‘British Empire Games, Hamilton, 1930’, 17. HPLSC 796.4 B777 CESH FOLIO.

[27]‘British Empire Games: Yesterday's Opening Ceremony in Ontario; Lord Burghley's success’, clipping, 17 Aug. 1930, The Polytechnic Harriers, Scrapbook, 1928–1934, 78. London Metropolitan Archives (hereafter LMA), Polytechnic Harriers, ACC/2677/21.

[28]‘Williams was Canada's Olympic Hero’, Hamilton Spectator, 1 Dec. 1982.

[29]‘Ten Countries to Be Represented at British Meeting’, n.d. BEG Scrapbook, 3; ‘Two Thousand Athletes to Compete in Empire Games Here this Month’, Hamilton Herald, 8 Aug. 1930. Northern Ireland was represented under the English team, as were some Free State athletes.

[30]Toronto Star, 25 Aug. 1930, 8.

[31] The Canadian women's track and field championships and the Ontario schoolboys' championships were funded by the Ontario Athletic Commission, which collected a 2% fee from the gate of professional sports events to use for amateur events.

[32] The Polytechnic Harriers, Scrapbook, 1928–1934, 67. LMA, Polytechnic Harriers, ACC/2677/21.

[33]Toronto Star, 25 Aug. 1930, 8.

[34]‘Expect “Greco Circus” to be Outstanding at BEG’, Hamilton Herald, 7 Aug. 1930.

[35]‘British Bowling Team Made up of Champions’, n.d. BEG Scrapbook, 21.

[36]‘Canadian Paddlers Win over Rivals from U.S.; Pearce Defeats Wright’, The Globe, 19 Aug. 1930; ‘Tens of Thousands Line Rowing Course at Hamilton Games’, The Globe, 20 Aug. 1930.

[37]‘Pearce Wins Easily over Rival Oarsman for Imperial Title’, The Globe, 22 Aug. 1930.

[38] Bennett, ‘Pearce, Henry Robert (Bobby) (1905–1976)’, 182–83.

[39]‘British Empire Games Committee Conference Was Quite Enthusiastic’, 19 Dec. 1929. BEG Scrapbook, 3.

[40]Toronto Star, 23 Aug. 1930, 9; 25 Aug. 1930, 8.

[41] Kidd, The Struggle for Canadian Sport, 188; New York Times, 7 Feb. 1909, S2.

[42]Toronto Star, 23 Aug. 1930, 9. On Great War commemoration in Ontario communities in this period, see Vance, Death So Noble, 211–19.

[43]‘Won't Vouch $65,000 for Empire Games’, Hamilton Herald, 5 Nov. 1935.

[44]‘Now Printing Program for Empire’, n.d. BEG Scrapbook, 3.

[45]Hamilton Spectator, 4 Sept. 1978.

[46] Moore, ‘The Warmth of Comradeship’, 247.

[47]The Polytechnic Harriers, Scrapbook, 1928–1934, 49. LMA, Polytechnic Harriers, ACC/2677/21. The AAA made £1,035 on championships in 1929, and a further £935 on the Germany v. England football international match in Berlin on 10 May 1930. After expenses, the AAA had a credit of £226.2 for 1929, and was in a position to financially support the English team's travel to Hamilton. On public donations, see Times, 27 June 1930, 20d.

[48] Barney, ‘The Great Transformation’, 102–03.

[49]‘Sport Editors’, n.d. BEG Scrapbook, 4; Keys, Globalizing Sport, 98–99.

[50] Pope, ‘An Army of Athletes’, 450–54.

[51]Chicago Daily Tribune, 28 Aug. 1930, 15.

[52]‘England will put forth big effort’, n.d.; ‘Keen Interest in Match with United States’, 27 Aug. 1930. BEG Scrapbook, 17, 19.

[53]‘Empire is manifesting great interest in project’, Hamilton Herald, 24 July 1930.

[54] Holt, Sport and the British, 224–27.

[55]Chicago Daily Tribune, 27 Aug. 1930, 19.

[56] The Polytechnic Harriers, Scrapbook, 1928–1934, 17 Feb. 1930, 56. LMA, Polytechnic Harriers, ACC/2677/21.

[57] The Polytechnic Harriers, Scrapbook, 1928–1934, 25 Apr. 1930, 59. LMA, Polytechnic Harriers, ACC/2677/21.

[58] Hynes, The Soldiers' Tale, 40–41.

[59] Cannadine, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy, 583, and 572–88 passim.

[60] BEG Scrapbook, 7 Apr. 1930, 65.

[61] Beckett, ‘Grenfell, William Henry’.

[62] Sir W. Beach Thomas, ‘British Empire Games: More than Athletics in Canadian Project’, n.d., Overseas. BEG Scrapbook, 23.

[63] See Mangan, The Games Ethic and Imperialism.

[64] The Polytechnic Harriers, Scrapbook, 1928–1934, 33–34. 7 Apr., 12 June and 24 June 1929. LMA, Polytechnic Harriers, ACC/2677/21.

[65]The Athletic Times, 26 Aug. 1929.

[66]‘Falls Day at Empire Games’, Hamilton Herald, 12 July 1930.

[67] Wilson was then in the midst of a National League campaign during which he drove in 191 runs, still the Major League Baseball single-season record.

[68] The CNE hosted both women's amateur and professional swim races, beginning in 1928. See Kidd, The Struggle for Canadian Sport, 106.

[69] Henshaw and Hyam, The Lion and the Springbok, 15; McDevitt, ‘May the Best Man Win’, 1, 86–7; Bradley, ‘The MCC, Society and Empire’, 15–17. Team sports were not added to the Empire/Commonwealth Games until 1998 in Kuala Lumpur, when cricket, field hockey, netball and rugby sevens debuted.

[70] The ICC was founded in 1909, the modern MMC in 1787, the IRFB in 1886, FIFA in 1904 and the FA in 1862.

[71] Guttmann, Games and Empires, 182.

[72] McDevitt, ‘May the Best Man Win’, 138–40. Mark Dyreson takes a more reductive view, seeing international sport as primarily ‘a tool for spreading particular national cultures’. See Dyreson, ‘Globalizing the Nation-Making Process’, 95.

[73] Rhodesia and Northern Ireland also fielded their own teams in 1934.

[74]Toronto Star, 20 Aug. 1930, 9.

[75] Greenlee, Sir Robert Falconer, 321, 309–13, 319–20. Falconer's 1925 Sir George Watson Chair lectures in Britain were entitled ‘Canada as an Interpreter’, anticipating the idea of a ‘North American triangle’, coined in 1945 by J. B. Brebner in his book of the same name.

[76] Dawson, ‘Acting Global, Thinking Local’, 19–20.

[77] See the essays in Buckner, Canada and the End of Empire, for more detailed discussion of this issue.