Beijing 2008: Volunteerism in Chinese Culture and its Olympic Interpretation and Influence

Abstract

Research on volunteerism is dominated by Western analyses and there is a paucity for studies concerning Chinese society. Volunteerism has in fact a strong cultural base in Chinese society, with a history stretching back several thousand years. This paper therefore reviews the evolution of volunteerism in Chinese culture at three historic periods, including the main schools of thought from Confucian benevolence, Mohist universal fraternity, Daoist philanthropy and Buddhist leniency to ‘Lei Feng Spirit’. Overall, it is conceptualized as ‘dedication, fraternity, mutuality and progress’ and that is the key concept of volunteerism for the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. The paper also examines the interpretation of the long tradition of volunteerism in specific policies for the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games and the influence of Beijing 2008 volunteerism within Chinese society after the Olympic Games.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to express her gratitude to her director of study, Dr Vassil Girginov of Brunel University, for his valuable advice and support in the completion of this paper.

Notes

[1] Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, Official Report, vol. 1.

[2] Athens 2004 Olympic Committee, Athens 2004 Volunteers, available at http://www.athens2004.com/en/Athens2004Volunteers, accessed 10 Oct. 2005.

[3] Walker and Gleeson, The Volunteers, ix.

[4] Jin, ‘100,000 Volunteers, One “Name-card”’; MacAloon, ‘Volunteers, Global Society and the Olympic Movement’; Pound, ‘Volunteers and the Olympic Movement’.

[5] International Olympic Committee, ‘IOC President's Remarks to the 120th IOC session’, 2008. Available at http://www.olympic.org/uk/news/olympic_news/full_story_uk.asp?id=2772, accessed 20 June 2009.

[6] Zhao, ‘Volunteerism’; Zheng, ‘The Spirit of Volunteers and Harmony Society’; Hou, ‘A Discussion of the Development and Concept’.

[7] Tian, ‘Several Issues on Developing Volunteering Service’; Tan, ‘Chinese Volunteer Service’; Ding, ‘Measuring Volunteering in China’.

[8] Girginov and Zhuang, ‘The Framing of the Idea of Volunteering’, 42–3.

[9] Zhang, ‘Chinese Ancient Philanthropy Culture’; Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[10] Zhao, ‘Volunteerism’; Hou, ‘A Discussion of the Development and Concept’.

[11]‘Mencius’ here refers to the book written by Mencius or Meng Ke (c.385 bce–c.304 bce), who was one of the most famous Confucian representatives during the Warring States period.

[12] Zhao, ‘Volunteerism’; Hou, ‘A Discussion of the Development and Concept’.

[13] Confucianism is a Chinese traditional philosophy founded by Confucius (551–479 bce).

[14] Mohism is another popular philosophy in Chinese society; the founder was Mo Zi (479–221 bce).

[15] Daoism is the only native-born religion in China, and may be traced to the second century of the Christian era.

[16] Buddhism originates in India, and had come to China by the fourth or fifth century of the Christian era.

[17] Shen and Fu, Volunteerism'; Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy; Shun and Wong, ‘Introduction’.

[18] Wilkinson, Chinese History; Cotterell, China: A History; Hao and Wang, ‘Changing Chinese Views’; Cotterell and Morgan, China: An Integrated Study.

[19] Zhang, ‘Chinese Ancient Philanthropy Cultures'.

[20] Ibid.

[21]‘Moderation’ is zhong yong in Chinese, and here refers to the book written by Confucius's grandson Zi Si.

[22] Zhang, ‘Chinese Ancient Philanthropy Cultures'.

[23] This is the translation of ‘qiong ze du shan qi shen, da ze jian ji tian xia’.

[24] Zhang, ‘Chinese Ancient Philanthropy Cultures'; Shen and Fu, ‘Volunteerism'.

[25] Ibid.

[26] Ibid.; Xu, ‘Analysing the Basis of Volunteering Spirit’.

[27] Zhang, ‘Chinese Ancient Philanthropy Cultures'.

[28] Ibid.

[29] Wang, The Classic of Great Peace is one of the main scriptures of Daoism, and is also called Taiping Jing in Chinese.

[30] Zhang, ‘Chinese Ancient Philanthropy Culture’, 40.

[31] Tan, ‘Organizing and Encouraging the Community Volunteering Service’.

[32] Tan, ‘Chinese Volunteer Service’.

[33] Ibid.

[34] Ibid.

[35] Shen and Fu. ‘Volunteerism’.

[36] Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[37] Guan Zhong (d. 645 bce) was the famous Chinese minister of state of the Kingdom of Qi during the Warring States era.

[38]‘Legalism’ is fa jia in Chinese, and its well-known representatives include Shang Yang and Han Fei.

[39] Anhui China Jiuhuashan Travel Gateway Network, ‘The Philosophical Foundations’; Yue, ‘The Idea Transformation’; Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy; Chang, ‘Guan Zhong's “Nine Compassions”’; Zhang, Pre-Qin Social Security Philosophies'.

[40] The nine compassions, in Guanzi, are: ‘(1) lao lao, (2) ci you, (3) xue gu, (4) yang ji, (5) he du, (6) wen bing, (7) tong qiong, (8) zhen kun, (9) jie jue’ (Guan et al., ‘Entering the Country’, 218). See Guanzi and Rickett, Guanzi, 227–8.

[41] Chang, ‘Guan Zhong's “Nine Compassions”’; Guan and Rickett, Guanzi.

[42] Anhui China Jiuhuashan Travel Gateway Network, ‘The Philosophical Foundations’.

[43]Shang Yang (390 BC–338 bce) was a major Legalist. He carried out the Reforms of Shang Yang in the Kingdom of Qin during the Warring States period, which is believed to have reformed the Qin to create the powerful nation that led to the union of the other six kingdoms and the formation of the Qin Dynasty. The ideology was originally written in the Book of Shang Yang (Shang Jun Shu): ‘zhi guo zhi ju, gui ling pin zhe fu, fu zhe pin. Pin zhe fu, fu zhe pin, guo qiang’, 13.

[44] Han Fei (280–233 bce) was another major Legalist. Han Fei Zi is one of his major writings. These are originally written in Han Fei, ‘Xian Xue’: ‘jin shang zheng lian yu fu ren yi bu shi yu pin jia, shi duo li jian er yu yi duo ye, er yu suo min zhi ji zuo er jie yong, bu ke de ye’,222.

[45] Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[46] Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy; Wilkinson, Chinese History; Cotterell, China: A History; Hao and Wang, ‘Changing Chinese Views'; Cotterell and Morgan, China: An Integrated Study. Purcell, The Rise of Modern China.

[47] Sun, The Chinese Reassessment of Socialism.

[48] Ibid.

[49] Ibid.; Hao and Wang, ‘Changing Chinese views of Western Relations’.

[50] Zheng, ‘The Sprit of Volunteers’; Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[51] Ibid.

[52] Ibid.

[53] Ibid.

[54] Ibid.

[55] Ibid.

[56] Ibid.

[57] Ibid.

[58]New Compilation of Political Advice is Zi Zhen Xin Bian in Chinese. It was Hong Ren-Gan who proposed it to the King of the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace in order to advocate political reforms by learning from the successful experiences of western countries (Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy).

[59] Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[60]An Ideal World is Da Tong Shu in Chinese.

[61] Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[62] Ibid.

[63] The principle of people's livelihood, of his ‘Old and New Three People's Principles’, in Chinese, is Xin jiu san min zhu yi de min sheng zhu yi.

[64] Zheng, ‘The Spirit of Volunteers’; Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[65] Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[66] Zheng, ‘The Spirit of Volunteers’.

[67] Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[68] Peng, ‘Before the Volunteering Service’.

[69] Ibid.; Zheng, ‘The Spirit of Volunteers'; Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[70] Ibid.; Hong, ‘Learning from Leifeng’; Zhu, ‘The Sublimation of Chinese National Spirit’.

[71] Peng, ‘Before the Volunteering Service'; Zhou and Zeng, A Brief History of Chinese Philanthropy.

[72] Peng, ‘Before the Volunteering Service'; Hong, Learning from Lei Feng is Not a Bask, Vol. 3A. Zhu, ‘The Sublimation of Chinese National Spirit’.

[73] Cheng, ‘The Value of Lei Feng's Spirit’, 104.

[74] Ibid.; He, ‘Youth Ethic Education’.

[75] Peng, ‘Before the Volunteering Service'; Shen and Fu, ‘Volunteerism'.

[76] Peng, ‘Before the Volunteering Service'; Cheng, ‘The Value of Lei Feng's Spirit in This Epoch'; Liao, ‘The Communist Youth League’.

[77] Wang and Lin, ‘Youth Volunteering Activities’.

[78] Tian, ‘Several Issues on Developing Volunteering Service'; Tan ‘Organizing and Encouraging the Community Volunteering Service in China'. Ding, ‘Fostering Volunteering Service for Civil Society’.

[79] Tan, ‘Chinese Volunteer Service’.

[80] Wang, ‘Discussing Building up the System’.

[81] Tian, ‘Several Issues on Developing Volunteering Service’.

[82] Ibid.

[83] Beijing Olympic Volunteer Programme Action Plan, preface.

[84] Beijing is one of the four municipalities.

[85] Li, ‘Recruiting Volunteers from Outside Beijing Regions for the Beijing Olympics and Paralympics’, 36.

[86] Beijing Olympic Volunteer Programme Action Plan, I: General Principles.

[87] Guan, ‘Analyse the Value, Principles and Function System’; Tan, ‘Chinese Volunteer Service’.

[88] Beijing 2008, ‘Li Binghua uses five ‘‘yeses'' to explain the work of Beijing 2008 Olympic Volunteer Programme’, 28 August 2006. Available at: http://www.beijing2008.cn/62/83/article212038362.shtml, accessed 15 Mar. 2007.

[89] Beijing Olympic Volunteer Programme Action Plan, preface.

[90] Dong and Mangan, ‘Beijing Olympic Legacies’, 2026.

[91]‘The Communist Party's Decision on Building a Harmonious Society’, Xinhua News, 18 Oct. 2006.

[92] Beijing Olympic Volunteer Programme Action Plan, preface.

[93] Ibid.

[94] Ibid.