‘The Charm of Being Loose and Free’: Nineteenth-Century Fisherwomen in the North American Wilderness

Abstract

During the nineteenth century, the popularity of angling among white, middle- and upper-class North American women grew as it came to be seen as an ideal and respectable means of access to the benefits of nature. Unlike hunting, angling enjoyed a wider and more respectable tradition of white female participation that extended back to the Renaissance. Though nineteenth-century middle- and upper-class white women were limited in their access to the natural world by scientific and cultural views of gender, many discovered that angling afforded unique opportunities to explore and engage nature through the overlapping roles of tourist, naturalist and conservationist. Moreover, angling allowed some elite white women to lay claim to nature as agents of colonisation, while for others, it assisted in the development of a public voice for conservation. Thus, angling served to extend the domestic sphere as it allowed middle- and upper-class white women a more independent use of mind and body within the context of nature.

«Le charme de se sentir libre » : les pêcheuses dans l’Amérique du Nord sauvage au dix-neuvième siècle

Au XIXe siècle, la popularité de la pêche entre femmes nord-américaines blanches et appartenant aux classes moyennes et supérieures a grandi au fur et à mesure qu’elle en est venue à être considérée comme un moyen idéal et respectable d’accéder aux bienfaits de la nature. Contrairement à la chasse, la pêche a bénéficié d’une tradition plus large et plus respectable en ce qui concerne la pratique des femmes blanches qui remonte à la Renaissance. Bien que l’accès au monde de la nature par les femmes blanches des classes moyennes et supérieures ait été freiné au XIXe siècle par les positions scientifiques et culturelles relatives au genre, beaucoup ont découvert que la pêche offrait des opportunités uniques pour explorer et vivre la nature en combinant les rôles de touriste, de naturaliste et d’écologiste. Par ailleurs, la pêche a amené certaines femmes de l'élite blanche à voir dans la nature un agent de colonisation alors que, pour d'autres, elle a contribué au développement d’un plaidoyer général pour la conservation. Ainsi, la pêche a servi à élargir la sphère domestique car elle a permis aux femmes blanches des classes moyennes et supérieures d’utiliser de manière plus indépendante leur corps et leur esprit dans le contexte de la nature.

“El placer de ser libre y no estar atada”: mujeres pescadoras en el monte en la Norteamérica del siglo XIX

Durante el siglo XIX, la pesca con caña se popularizó entre las mujeres norteamericanas blancas y de clase media y alta, ya que era vista como una forma ideal y respetable de acceso a los beneficios de la naturaleza. La pesca gozaba de una tradición de participación de mujeres blancas más amplia y más respetable que la caza, una tradición que se remontaba al Renacimiento. A pesar de que el acceso a la naturaleza de las mujeres blancas de clase media y alta estaba limitado a causa de la perspectiva científica y cultural de género dominante, muchas de ellas descubrieron que la pesca con caña ofrecía ocasiones únicas para aproximarse a la naturaleza y explorarla mediante el solapamiento de los roles de turista, naturalista y conservacionista. Además, la pesca propiciaba que algunas mujeres blancas de las élites reivindicaran la naturaleza como agentes colonizadores, mientras que para otras contribuyó a la difusión de las reivindicaciones conservacionistas. Así pues, la pesca con caña ayudó a expandir la esfera doméstica, dado que comportó que las mujeres blancas de clase media y alta pudieran adquirir una actitud física y espiritual más independiente en el contexto de la naturaleza.

‘The Charm of Being Loose and Free:’ Fischerfrauen des 19. Jahrhunderts in der nordamerikanischen Wildnis

Während des 19. Jahrhunderts wuchs die Popularität des Angelns unter weißen nordamerikanischen Frauen der Mittel-und Oberschicht, weil es als eine ideale und respektable Weise des Zugangs zu den Vorteilen der Natur angesehen wurde. Anders als die Jagd genoss das Angeln eine breitere und respektablere Tradition der Beteiligung von weißen Frauen, die sich zurück bis in die Renaissance erstreckte. Obwohl die weißen Frauen der Mittel- und Oberklasse des 19. Jahrhunderts in ihrem Zugang zur natürlichen Welt durch wissenschaftliche und kulturelle Ansichten der Geschlechter beschränkt waren, entdeckten viele, dass das Angeln einzigartige Möglichkeiten gewährte, die Natur durch die sich überlappenden Rollen von Tourist, Naturforscher und Naturschützer zu erkunden und in Anspruch zu nehmen. Außerdem erlaubte das Angeln einigen weißen Frauen der Elite, die Natur als Agenten des Kolonialismus zu beanspruchen, während es für andere die Entwicklung einer öffentlichen Stimme für den Naturschutz unterstützte. Das Angeln diente also dazu, die häusliche Sphäre auszudehnen, indem es weißen Frauen der Mittel- und Oberklasse eine unabhängigere Nutzung von Geist und Körper im Kontext der Natur erlaubte.

宽松和自由的魅力：19世纪北美荒野之地从事垂钓运动的妇女

19世纪，垂钓运动因被看作是一种理想的、体面的获取大自然恩惠的方式，因此在北美的中、上等白人女性群体中不断普及。与狩猎不同，垂钓得到了白人女性群体的广泛参与，因而成为一项体面的传统运动。而该项活动的起源其实可以追溯到文艺复兴时期。从科学的和文化性别的观点看，虽然1

9世纪中、上层白人女性接触自然的机会很有限，但许多人却发现垂钓运动能使她们能以旅游者、自然主义者和环境保护者的多重身份来探索和亲近自然。此外，垂钓运动还使一些白人妇女的精英群体能以殖民统治代理人的身份来宣称拥有亲近自然的权利。而对其他人来看，这项运动则为环境保护事业创造了公共舆论的氛围。由于垂钓运动使中、上层白人女性在自然环境的背景下更为独立地驾驭自己的身心活动，因此该运动有助于拓展国内的空间范围。

“O Charme de Ser Solta e Livre”: Pescadoras do Século XIX na Natureza Selvagem Americana

Durante o século XIX, a popularidade da pesca recreativa entre mulheres norte-americanas brancas de classe média e alta cresceu, à medida que o esporte passou a ser visto como um meio ideal e respeitável de se acessar os benefícios da natureza. Ao contrário da caça, a pesca recreativa possuía uma tradição mais ampla e respeitável de participação de mulheres brancas que se estendia até o Renascimento. Ainda que as mulheres brancas de classe média e alta do século XIX tivessem limites em seu acesso ao mundo natural, impostos por visões científicas e culturais de gênero, muitas descobriram que a pesca recreativa possibilitava oportunidades únicas de explorar e atuar sobre a natureza através de papéis sobrepostos de turistas, naturalistas e conservacionistas. Além disso, a pesca recreativa permitia que algumas mulheres brancas da elite reivindicassem a natureza como agentes de colonização, enquanto para outras, ela auxiliava no desenvolvimento de uma voz pública em prol da conservação. Assim, a pesca recreativa funcionou como um meio de se expandir a esfera doméstica, ao possibilitar um uso mais independente da mente e do corpo para mulheres brancas de classe média e alta, dentro do contexto da natureza.

｢自由でいることの魅力｣：19世紀北米の荒野における女釣り師たち

19世紀、北米の白人中上流階層の女性たちの間で、魚釣りの人気が高まった。これは、魚釣りが自然の恵みに浴するための理想的で品の良い方法と考えられるようになったからである。狩猟とは異なり、魚釣りは、白人女性の参加というより広範で品の良いルネサンス期以来の伝統を享受した。ジェンダーについての科学的ないしは文化的見解のせいで、19世紀の白人中上流階層の女性たちには自然へのアクセスが限定されていたとはいえ、多くの人々は魚釣りを、観光者、博物学者、自然保護主義者という相重なる役割を通じて自然を探求しそれに関与する無二の機会と見なした。加えて、魚釣りを通じて自然の所有権を主張した、植民地開拓のエージェントたるエリート白人女性もいれば、魚釣りを自然保護のための公衆の声を広げる手助けと考えたものもいた。こうして魚釣りは、私的領域を拡張し、白人中上流階層の女性たちが、自然という文脈の中で精神と身体とをより自立的に用いることを可能にしたのである。

Keywords::

• angling
• fishing
• women
• recreation
• nature

Notes

^1. “Feminine Izaak Waltons: A New York Fisherwoman,” The New York Times, August 14, 1898.

^2. “Feminine Izaak Waltons: A New York Fisherwoman”, The New York Times, August 14, 1898 The unnamed woman recounts that she gained her love of angling as a child in France but did not experienced ‘skilled fishing’ until she was fourteen and in New York.

^3. The unnamed woman recounts that she gained her love of angling as a child in France but did not experienced “skilled fishing” until she was fourteen and in New York

^4.Zboray and Zboray, “Romance of Fisherwomen,” 20.

^5. The emergence and social acceptance of fisherwomen prior to the nineteenth century is explored in, Smith, “Reel Women,” and in the forthcoming, McMurray, “Recreation Which Many Ladies Delight In.”

^6.Greer and Guelke, “Intrepid Naturalists,” 324.

^7. For further information on the political, legal and social restrictions on women in nineteenth-century Canada, see Prentice. Canadian Women. For similar information on the nineteenth-century USA, see Evans, Born for Liberty; also see Pease and Pease, Ladies, Women, & Wenches; Kerber, Toward an Intellectual History of Women, 199.

^8.Vertinsky, Eternally Wounded Woman, 23.

^9. Greer and Guelke, “Intrepid Naturalists,” 339.

^10.Gates, Kindred Nature, 13–14.

^11.Vertinsky, Eternally Wounded Woman, 40; similarly see also Hargreaves, Sporting Females, 48.

^12.Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 177. Wetherell and Kmet also comment that the distinction between hunting and angling ‘appeared to be that killing fish was a different experience, in conceptual terms at least, from killing feathered or furred animals’; Wetherell and Kmet, Useful Pleasures, 180.

^13.Nicholas D. Smith notes that Frances Power Cobb, even though she abandoned angling base upon its cruelty, would later admit that ‘angling scarcely comes under the head of cruelty at all’, and that she did not ‘take on myself to blame those who followed them [angling and other field sports].’ Smith, “Reel Women,” 44.

^14.McMurray, “Rivaling the Gentleman,” 101. This is especially important when one looks at the Victorian era when other field sports such as hunting tried to update their image through the inclusion of women. For example, Smalley notes that sporting magazines ‘did not portray the sport as an exclusively masculine enterprise, but instead connected certain of women's “essential” qualities to “correct” forms of hunting in contrast to “common” or even “immoral” methods of taking game.’ Smalley, “Our Lady Sportsmen,” 357. That angling had this feminine presence embedded long before the nineteenth century is significant.

^15. Thackvay, “Camps and Tramps for Women,” 333.

^16. Thackvay tells the story of two sisters who tried to camp in the woods without a gentleman or male guide present. She says, “it has been done, but it's an open question whether ‘its worth going through so much trouble to get so little’.” Thackvay, “Camps and Tramps for Women,” 337. In the end, the sister's only last 24 hours before a male guide named John Wesley provides them with a civilised and organised campsite.

^17.Smalley, “Our Lady Sportsmen,” 366.

^18.Smalley, ““Our Lady Sportsmen””, 367. A strong argument can be made that historians need to examine angling as a related, but separate entity from the sport of hunting. Hallock and other male sporting editors used the widespread social acceptability for women's participation in angling to try and legitimise the less acceptable sport of hunting. See McMurray, “Rivaling the Gentleman,” 102,103.

^19. “Unmanly Men and Unwomanly Women,” Forest and Stream, March 27, 1879.

^20.Matthews, Rise of the New Woman, 5.

^21. Gates, Kindred Nature, 21, 22.

^22.Riley, Women and Nature, 10.

^23. Weeks, “My First Land-Locked Salmon,” Outing, Sept 1900, 618.

^24. An argument for the use of angling by nineteenth-century women to achieve autonomy, authority and agency in the public sphere is found in, McMurray, “Rivaling the Gentleman.”

^25. Matthews, Rise of the New Woman, 13,14.

^26. Matthews, Rise of the New Woman, 13,14

^27. Riley, Women and Nature, 36.

^28. C.R.C., “A New Hand at the Rod,” Outing, May 1890. The story can also be found in Morris, Uncommon Waters, 51–57.

^29.Gillespie, “Imperial Embrace,” 7.

^30. For an exploration of the growth in fishing equipment in the USA see Schullery, American Fly Fishing, and Waterman, History of Angling. Concerning the growth of angling in the USA, Chochla notes that between 1870 and 1901, ‘nearly one hundred books on American angling were published.’ Chochla, “Victorian Fly Fishers,” 152.

^31. Jones, “Lady Wildcats and Wild Women,” 37–49. Though she is talking about female hunters, the context is transferable to female anglers.

^32. For an exploration on female anglers and the humane movement, see McMurray, “A Recreation Which Many Ladies Delight In.”

^33. “Diana,” Forest and Stream, August 30, 1883.

^34. “The Princess Louise,” Forest and Stream, August 30, 1883.

^35. J. U. Gregory, “The Vice-Regal Angling Party,” Forest and Stream, August 30, 1883.

^36. Gates, Kindred Nature, 208.

^37. Gates, Kindred Nature, 207. Similarly, Glenda Riley demonstrates how some nineteenth-century women used the sport of mountain climbing to challenge a male-dominated culture. Riley, Women and Nature, 116.

^38. C.R.C., “A New Hand at the Rod”.

^39. Eergthora, “A Woman's Outing on the Nepigon,” Outing, September 1897.

^40. Mary Trowbridge Townsend, “Angling for Eastern Trout,” Outing, May 1899.

^41.Moodie, Life in the Clearings, 3.

^42.Marbury, Favorite Flies and Their Histories, 3.

^43.Jasen, Wild Things, 115.

^44.Jasen, Wild Things, 113. On the same page, Jasen states that in relation to Canada, by the late nineteenth century, ‘The camping and canoeing trip remained to some extent a male preserve, but women often participated, especially in fishing expeditions.’

^45. Mary R. Shipman Andrews, “A Woman in Camp,” Outing, January 1894.

^46.Hunter and Shettleworth Jr, Fly Rod Crosby, 4.

^47.Hunter and Shettleworth Jr, Fly Rod Crosby, 6.

^48.Hunter and Shettleworth Jr, Fly Rod Crosby, 7.

^49.Verde, “Diana of the Rangeleys,” 10.

^50.Verde, “Diana of the Rangeleys” Verde states that by the early 1890s, ‘Nature had literally revived her …’. Crosby was now writing for various sporting magazines and had established herself as an outdoor writer and journalist. Likewise, I highlight how Crosby used her expertise in angling to become a respected and well-known public authority in ‘Rivaling the Gentleman’.

^51. Gillespie, “Imperial Embrace,” 26.

^52.Sjovold, “Angling People,” 46.

^53.Dufferin, My Canadian Journal, 129. Lady Dufferin's skill as an angler was also recorded by George Stewart Jr, who wrote of Dufferin's experience on the Gaspe that ‘Lady Dufferin with a deftness which would have delighted the gentle Isaac himself, proved herself a thorough mistress of the gentle art, and after killing several dozens of trout averaging half a pound to four and a half pounds each in weight, she succeeded in landing from one of the upper pools a thirteen pound salmon’. Stewart, Canada under the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin, 249.

^54. Dufferin, My Canadian Journal, 115.

^55. Dufferin, My Canadian Journal, 116.

^56. The use of military terminology to describe British angling experiences in North America was not uncommon. In describing Dufferin's angling expedition on the Gaspe, Stewart Jr writes, ‘While the gentlemen of the party devoted their skill to the capture of the king of fish, the ladies waged war on the speckled and delicious trout.’ Stewart, Canada under the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin, 248, 249.

^57. Gates, Kindred Nature, 200. The salmon in particular had long been regarded as a royal game fish in Britain and had frequently been ascribed the characteristics of nobility. For example, Walton called the salmon, ‘the King of freshwater fish’. Walton and Cotton, The Compleat Angler. See also Stewart Jr's reference to the Dufferin's in the previous note. The goal of the anglers was to capture the king of fish.

^58.Moodie, Roughing It in the Bush, 298.

^59. Gates, Kindred Nature, 1.

^60. Dufferin was not uncommon in recording the number and weight of the fish that her party caught. Fishing clubs and members of the British sporting elite also kept detailed logbooks. Stewart Jr notes that in 10 days of fishing, the Dufferin's fishing party ‘netted a total of seventeen salmon killed; total weight 295 pounds.’ Stewart, Canada under the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin, 248.

^61. Eergthora, “Woman's Outing on the Nepigon,” 585. For further discussion on how British sportsmen described the Canadian wilderness see, Moyles and Owram, Imperial Dreams and Colonial Realities.

^62. Riley, Women and Nature, 39.

^63.Wonders, “A Sportsman's Eden Part 2,” 33.

^64. Gender and her amateur status was the most probable cause; however, Kenneth Cameron also notes that a rivalry with Seth Green, a fish culturist on Spring Creek, may have led to her exclusion from a scientific study on the creek by J.A. Litner, who used Green's water and moss samples. ‘Too bad’, writes Cameron, “Sara probably could have provided him with all stages of the most important insects.” Cameron, “Girls of Summer Part 2,” 16.

^65. Schullery, American Fly Fishing, 89.

^66. Foggia, Reel Women, 35.

^67. In “Girls of Summer Part 2”, Cameron goes into detail about McBride's observations and experiments. For McBride to create artificial flies based on reality was to go against the common practice and thinking of the angling community. In a 1870 article in Punchinello, entitled, “Fish Sauce,” the anonymous author tries to dissuade the imitation of natural insects in fly tying. “Fish Sauce,” Punchinello, Saturday, April 2, 1870. This type of mentality in the nineteenth century is also noted by contemporary fisherwoman, Joan Wulff, who Lyla Foggia quotes to state that McBride ‘was ahead of her time, … the fly fishing fraternity, as a whole, didn't have a clue about insect life and most fly patterns were what we now call “attractors”.’ Foggia, Reel Women, 35. How angling allowed McBride a public voice of authority is explored in, McMurray “Rivaling the Gentleman,” 103–106.

^68. “Feminine Izaak Waltons,” 14.

^69. McBride stated, ‘Insects in the water are the most afflicted by changes of temperatures. Any guide for a fly-fisher would be almost useless unless this important point is remembered. English works can never become positive authorities for our climate.’ Sara Jane McBride, “Metaphysics of Fly Fishing. Part First.” Forest and Stream, March 16, 1876.

^70.Cameron, “Girls of Summer Part 2,” 16.

^71. McBride, “Metaphysics of Fly Fishing. Part First.”

^72.McMurray, “Rivaling the Gentleman,” 105–106.

^73. Marbury, Favorite Flies and Their Histories, 7, 8.

^74.Kemble, Diary of Frances Anne Kemble, 39.

^75. Somerset, Impressions of a Tenderfoot, 88. Susan Margaret Richards McKinnon St Maur, the Duchess of Somerset, wrote under the pseudonym Mrs. Algernon St. Maur.

^76. St Maur uses Latin nomenclature in other instances after first giving the popular name of the fish. For example, see Somerset, Impressions of a Tenderfoot, 87.

^77. Riley, Women and Nature, 38.

^78. Riley, “Victorian Ladies Outdoors,” 69.

^79.Harris, “Elizabeth Taylor as a Victorian Lady Traveler,” 301.

^80. Elizabeth Taylor, “Woman in the Mackenzie Delta. Part 1: Northward to Athabasca Lake,” Outing XXV, no. 1 (October 1894), 44, 45.

^81.Taylor, Far Islands and Other Cold Places, 36.

^82.Dunn, “Nipigon Fisherwoman,” 21.

^83. Taylor, Far Islands and Other Cold Places, 37. At least for botanical specimens.

^84. Taylor, Far Islands and Other Cold Places, 9.

^85. “Salmon Angling on the Restigouche,” Scribner's Magazine, January–June 1888, 580.

^86. Edmund Collins, “Canadian Social Life and Sports,” Outing, December 1885, 269, 270.

^87. Helen Church, “Two Idlers in Camp,” Outing, August 1895, 394. British tourist, Lady Jephson, also combined fishing and sketching during her vacation travels in Canada. In A Canadian Scrap-Book (1897), Jephson wrote of how her fishing equipment and sketching arrangements were strapped onto their buckboard. Jephson, Canadian Scrap-Book, 37.

^88. Thackvay, “Camps and Tramps for Women,” 335, 341.

^89.Huddleston, Bluebell, a Novel, 131. Bluebell, or Theodora Leigh, and her friend, Cecil Rolleston, are staying at the newly purchased wilderness retreat of Cecil's father, Colonel Rolleston. Set in the Thousand Islands of the St Lawrence, Cecil did not want to go with her father on an excursion down the Saguenay in Quebec, but instead was ‘perfectly content to be all day long in her canoe, fishing, sketching, reading or picnicking with the children on the island.’

^90. Riley, Women and Nature, 82.

^91. Riley, Women and Nature, 81.

^92. “Fish Caught in the Air: Angling and Photography Hand in Hand,” The New York Times, February 25, 1889, 8. This article explicitly linked angling with the growth of amateur photography.

^93. Margaret Bisland wrote, “Photography makes a strong appeal to [a] woman for the reason that she may study and practice it within her own home … and it does not interfere with her daily duties.” Margaret Bisland, “Women and Their Cameras,” Outing XVII, no. 1, 1890, 38.

^94.Riley, “Victorian Ladies Outdoors,” 76.

^95. Jasen, Wild Things, 134.

^96. Jasen, Wild Things, 139.

^97.Riley, Taking Land Breaking Land, 191.

^98. McMurray, “Rivaling the Gentleman,” 110.

^99. McMurray, “Rivaling the Gentleman” 111.

^100. Riley, Taking Land Breaking Land, 192

^101. Chochla, “Victorian Fly Fishers,” 158.

^102.Stoler, “Making Empire Respectable,” 344.

^103. Chochla, “Victorian Fly Fishers,” 159.

^104.Jasen, “Native People and the Tourist Industry,” 10.

^105. Eergthora, “Woman's Outing on the Nepigon,” 582.

^106. Eergthora, “Woman's Outing on the Nepigon”, 582

^107. Katherine White upon seeing her native guides remarked, ‘They looked civilized enough and another fear vanished.’ Katherine White, “Through Darkest America,” Outing, March 1893, 398.

^108.Davenport, “Diary of N. Davenport, August, 1871,” 14.

^109.Davenport, “Diary of N. Davenport, August, 1871”, 15.

^110. Davenport, “Diary of N. Davenport, August, 1871,” 18.

^111. Davenport, “Diary of N. Davenport, September 1871.”

^112. Somerset, Impressions of a Tenderfoot, 90.

^113. Jasen, Wild Things, 139.

^114.Morin, “Peak Practices,” 502.

^115. White, “Through Darkest America,” 463.

^116.Moodie, Diary of Susannah Moodie, 126.

^117. Dunn, “Nipigon Fisherwoman,” 21. A Globe correspondent named ‘Spinner’ also took a trip down the Nipigon the same year as Taylor and noted that ‘Esqimaux Joe is the most distinguished cook on the river’, and that he and Louis Bouchard were, ‘stars’ in their quality as guides. Spinner, “Ten Days on the Nipigon,” The Globe, Thursday, July 19, 1888.

^118. Dunn, “Nipigon Fisherwoman,” 22.

^119. Chochla, “Victorian Fly Fishers,” 159.

^120. Taylor, Far Islands and Other Cold Places, 45.

^121. Taylor, Far Islands and Other Cold Places, 46.

^122. Chochla, “Victorian Fly Fishers,” 159.

^123. Chochla, “Victorian Fly Fishers”

^124. Eergthora, “Woman's Outing on the Nepigon,” 584.

^125. Jasen, Wild Things, 144.

^126. Aldridge, A.F. “The Sportsmen's Show,” The New York Times, March 24, 1897.

^127. McMurray, “Rivaling the Gentleman,” 111.

^128.McManus, Choices and Chances, 177.

^129. Church, “Two Idlers in Camp,” 392; Andrews, “Woman in Camp,” 184.

^130. Sjovold, “Angling People,” 161.

^131. Sjovold, “Angling People”, 163. The ‘Red Ibis Club; in New York did include women as members. According to The New York Times, this club was made up of about ‘20 New York and Brooklyn people’, which included well known New York newspapermen of the time and several women. “The Thousand Islands: Fishing and Boating on the Old St Lawrence,” The New York Times, July 8, 1888. Also see, “Two Hooks and One Fish,” The New York Times, July 29, 1888.

^132. Hunter and Shettleworth Jr, Fly Rod Crosby, 15.

^133. Hunter and Shettleworth Jr, Fly Rod Crosby, 19.

^134. Women earned the right to vote in presidential elections in Maine in 1919.

^135. Sjovold, “Angling People,” 205, 206.

^136. Sjovold, “Angling People”, 207.

^137. Fannie Pearson Hardy, “Six Years under Maine Game Laws. Part 6 – in Conclusion,” Forest and Stream, August 6, 1891.

^138. “Feminine Izaak Waltons.”

^139. “Feminine Izaak Waltons”

^140. “Feminine Izaak Waltons”

^141.Parenteau, “Very Determined Opposition to the Law,” 453.

^142.Parenteau, ““Very Determined Opposition to the Law””, 453

^143.Parenteau, ““Very Determined Opposition to the Law””, 453, 452–456.

^144. “Feminine Izaak Waltons”.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

David McMurray

David McMurray is the Research Officer at Lethbridge College, which is located in Lethbridge, AB, Canada. He is also a sessional instructor in Canadian history at the University of Lethbridge.