Ancient Greek ‘Amateurism’, the NCAA and the Courts

Abstract

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) has recently been the target of many lawsuits challenging its definition and regulation of amateurism, which it holds as providing unique moral and social benefits for both its scholar-athletes and society at large. This conception of amateurism is inherited from nineteenth-century models of ancient Greek athletics via figures such as John Mahaffy and E.N. Gardiner. This influence is evident in legal cases involving the NCAA or athletics in general, and hence amateurism is cited by judges and others as a long-standing Western cultural tradition which encourages moral and social development. This is problematic, however, as not only is it historically questionable, but also the citation of cultural heritage in legal dicta has seen legal criticism or reversal.

A NCAA foi recentemente o alvo de muitos processos questionando sua definição e regulamentação do amadorismo, que ela defende como promovedor de benefícios morais e sociais únicos tanto para seus atletas-estudiosos como para a sociedade em geral. Essa concepção de amadorismo é herdada de modelos de século XIX de atletismo da Grécia antiga, via figura como John Mahaffy e E.N. Gardiner. Essa influência é evidente em casos legais envolvendo a NCAA ou o atletismo em geral, e por isso o amadorismo é citado por juízes e outros como uma tradição cultural ocidental de longa data, que encorajaria o desenvolvimento moral e social. Isso, no entanto, é problemático, uma vez que é não apenas historicamente questionável, mas também a citação de patrimônio cultural nos ditames legais já viu crítica legal ou reversão.

La NCAA ha sido objeto últimamente de varios procesos judiciales en relación con su definición y regulación del amateurismo, que para esta organización proporciona beneficios morales y sociales excepcionales, tanto para sus atletas-escolares como para el conjunto de la sociedad. Esta concepción del amateurismo es una herencia de modelos decimonónicos del atletimo en la Grecia clásica propuestos por figuras como John Mahaffy y E.N. Gardiner. Esta influencia se hace patente en litigios que implican a la NCAA o al atletismo en general, en los que los jueces y otras partes implicadas consideran el amateurismo como una tradición cultural occidental de larga duración que estimula el desarrollo moral y social. No obstante esta presunción es problemática, ya que no solo es cuestionable desde el punto de vista histórico, sino también porque la apelación a la herencia cultural en procesos legales ha sido objeto de crítica e incluso de impugnación exitosa.

La NCAA a récemment été la cible de poursuites judiciaires contestant sa définition de l'amateurisme et son mode de régulation, qu'elle défend comme étant le seul modèle pour le progrès moral et social des étudiants-athlètes et de la société dans son ensemble. Depuis le XIXe siècle, cette conception de l'amateurisme est héritée du modèle des athlètes de l'Antiquité grecque, véhiculés par des personnalités comme John Mahaffy et E.N. Gardiner. Cette influence est évidente dans les affaires judiciaires impliquant la NCAA et les sports en général. L'amateurisme y est cité par les juges et magistrats comme une longue tradition culturelle occidentale qui favorise le progrès moral et social. Cette situation est problématique, non seulement parce que c'est historiquement contestable, mais parce que la citation de l'héritage culturel comme un diktat légal a vu émerger une critique, voire un revirement dans le milieu judiciaire.

Die NCAA war vor kurzem Zielscheibe mehrerer Klagen, die ihre Definition und Festlegung von Amateurismus, die sie als bereitgestellte einzigartige Moral und sozialen Vorteil sowohl für ihre Stipendiaten-Athleten als auch die Gesellschaft insgesamt hält, in Frage stellten. Diese Auffassung von Amateurismus wurde von Modellen der antiken griechischen Athletik aus dem 19. Jahrhundert durch Persönlichkeiten wie John Mahaffy und E.N. Gardiner übernommen. Dieser Einfluss ist in Rechtsfällen erwiesen, welche die NCAA oder Athletik im Allgemeinen einbeziehen. Amateurismus wird folglich von Richtern und anderen als langjährige westliche kulturelle Tradition, die moralische und soziale Entwicklung fördert, zitiert. Dies ist jedoch problematisch, da es ist nicht nur historisch fragwürdig ist, sondern die Zitierung des kulturellen Erbes nach richterlicher Meinung zu juristischen Vorwürfen oder Aufhebung geführt hat.

全米大学体育協会（NCAA）は、近年そのアマチュアリズムの定義や規制をめぐって数多くの訴訟を受けている。NCAAは、アマチュアリズムを傘下の学生アスリート及び社会一般に対して比類なき倫理的社会的利益を与えるものとしている。このアマチュアリズム概念は、ジョン・マハフィやE.N・ガーディナーといった論者を通じて、古代ギリシアの競技会を基にした１９世紀のモデルから引き継がれたものである。このモデルの影響力は、NCAA及びスポーツ一般にかかわる訴訟において明白であり、ゆえに判事などはアマチュアリズムを、倫理的社会的発展を促進するような、西洋に長年続く文化的伝統であるとして引用するのである。しかしながら、これは問題含みである。まず、このことは歴史的に見て疑問である。加えて、法的意見の中で文化的遺産について引用することは、法学上の批判や反論の対象となってきた。

全美大学体育协会（NCAA）最近成为许多法律诉讼的目标，挑战其为广大奖学金运动员和协会提供独特的道德和社会福利的业余性的界定和规则。这种业余性的概念是通过几个人物如John Mahaffy 和 E.N. Gardiner继承十九世纪古希腊竞技模式而建立起来的。总的来说，涉及NCAA或体育运动的法律案件的影响力是显而易见的。因此，业余主义被法官和其他人作为一个长期西方文化传统所引用，来鼓励道德和社会发展。然而，这是有问题的，不仅存在历史疑问，而且在法律纠纷的文化遗产引用上也会招致法律批评或撤诉。

Keywords::

• amateurism
• ancient Greece
• National Collegiate Athletic Association
• gymnasium
• Gaines
• Athens

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Emily Greenwood and the faculty and graduate students at Yale University, who heard an early version of this paper and offered valuable feedback and comments. Thanks are also due to Tom Hawkins, whose support and advice at the inception of this project was very helpful.

Notes

^1.Gaines v. NCAA, 746 F.Supp. 738, 744 (M.D.Tenn.1990)

^2.Young, The Olympic Myth, viii.

^3.2011–12 NCAA Division I Manual.

^4. For further discussion of the NCAA's definition and application of amateurism, see Muenzen, “Weakening Its Own Defense?” 259–63.

^5.Young, The Olympic Myth, 20.

^6. Ibid., 20–1.

^7.Smith, Sports and Freedom, 26–51.

^8.Hawes, “Debate on Amateurism.”

^9.Mahaffy, “Old Greek Athletics.”

^10. Ibid., 61. This is actually a reversal of the true chronology of the terms; ‘athlete' and its related terms predate the use of ‘gymnastic' by centuries (Young, The Olympic Myth, 45).

^11.Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, 266–7.

^12. Ibid., 301.

^13.Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports, 467, 507.

^14. Ibid., 510.

^15. See Kyle, “E. Norman Gardiner,” 33–47, for analysis of the influence of Victorian Hellenism on Gardiner's work, and for similar observations regarding Mahaffy and Gardner, see Young, The Olympic Myth, 47, 52.

^16.Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports, 469.

^17. Ibid., 470.

^18. For an overview of the failure of such cases and the relationship to amateurism, see “Sherman Act Invalidation.”

^19. See Gaines v. NCAA, 746 F.Supp. 738, 743 (M.D. Tenn. 1990); Pocono v. NCAA, 317 F.Supp.2d 569, 581 (E.D. Pa. 2004).

^20. For a more complete description of this case and its economic ramifications, see Kahn, “Cartel Behavior,” 217–8.

^21.Champion, Sports Law, 80.

^22. For detailed analysis of one such case, see Freedman, “Pay or Play?”

^23. 317 F. Supp. 2d at 583 (E.D. Penn. 2004).

^24.Justice v. NCAA, 577 F.Supp. 356, 379 (D. Ariz. 1983).

^25.McCormack, 845 F.2d at 1344.

^26. Ibid., at 1345.

^27. See Banks v. NCAA, 977 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1992); Jones v. NCAA, 392 F.Supp. 295 (D.Mass. 1975).

^28.Gaines v. NCAA, 746 F.Supp. 738, 743 (M.D. Tenn. 1990).

^29.Gaines v. NCAA, 746 F.Supp. at 746. This is similar to reasoning found in NCAA v. Board of Regents of University of Oklahoma, 468 U.S. at 117 (1984); although the NCAA lost that case, the court still found that ‘it is reasonable to assume that most of the regulatory controls of the NCAA are justifiable means of fostering competition among amateur athletic teams and therefore pro-competitive because they enhance public interest in intercollegiate athletics', even hinting that eligibility regulations were an example of one of these reasonable controls.

^30.Gaines v. NCAA, 746 F.Supp. at 747.

^31.Gainesv. NCAA, 746 F.Supp. at 744.

^32.Champion, Sports Law, 115–6.

^33.Hackbartv. Cincinnati Bengals, Inc., 435 F.2d at 356.

^34.Hackbart v. Cincinnati Bengals, Inc., 435 F.Supp. at 357.

^35.Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, 267.

^36.Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports, 468–9.

^37. Ibid., 470.

^38.Young, A Brief History, 84–7; see also König, Athletics and Literature, 57–8.

^39.Branch, “The Shame of College Sports.”

^40.Young, A Brief History, 80; for a more in-depth discussion, see Young, “Mens Sana.”

^41. Cf. Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, 267: ‘An [sic] harmonious development of body and mind was sought in all systems of training' in ancient Greece.

^42.König, Athletics and Literature, 126, 148–9.

^43.Young, A Brief History, 87–9.

^44.Roberson, “Is It ‘Student-Athlete' or ‘Athlete-Student'.”

^45. Ibid.

^46.Nagy, “The ‘Blind Look' Rule of Reason,” 362.

^47.Banks, 977 F.2d at 1091.

^48.Nagy, “The ‘Blind Look' Rule of Reason,” 356.

^49.Nussbaum, “Platonic Love and Colorado Law.”

^50. Sometimes, an earlier dictum can be incorporated into the body of a later opinion and actually become binding. In this instance, the judge in Gaines has perhaps paved the way for other judges to reference Athenian virtues as further evidence of the legitimacy of NCAA regulations.

^51.Nagy, “The ‘Blind Look' Rule of Reason,” 351–2.

^52.Flood v. Kuhn, 407 U.S. 258, 264.

^53.McDonald, “Antitrust and Baseball,” 105.

^54.Tsimpris, “A Question of (Anti)trust,” 78.

^55.Eskridge, “Overruling Statutory Precedents,” 1381.

^56. 601 F.2d 516 (the Court of Appeals decision reversing the District Court decision).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Anna McCullough

Anna McCullough obtained her M.Litt. and Ph.D. in ancient history from the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, and joined the Department of Classics at The Ohio State University in 2008. She has published articles on female gladiators and gender in imperial Latin literature, and has presented papers on the reception of ancient Roman culture in modern popular culture and sport.

Aswin Tony Subketkaew

Aswin Tony Subketkaew graduated from Oklahoma State University in 2008 with a B.A. in agricultural economics and philosophy. He was a teacher in Baltimore, Maryland, as a member of Teach For America in 2008, and completed his M.A. in education from Johns Hopkins University in 2010. He then attended law school at The Ohio State University Moritz College of Law, where he helped found the Education Law Society. In 2011, Tony helped organise an event entitled ‘NCAA “Compliance:” The Fuzzy Line Between Amateur and Professional’ to explore legal issues surrounding amateurism in the NCAA.