https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9082-3275
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Abstract
In the early Republican period of Turkey (1923–1945), the newly established state provided a biopolitical agenda for developing modern and secular life in order to break the Ottoman heritage religious-traditional social structure. Thereupon, sports, as an indicator of modernization, took an important place in the biopolitics of the regime. Sports spaces were instrumentalized as a medium where biopower infiltrated to build a modern life. In order to effectively accomplish the modern life-building project, the Republican Regime invited international modernist architects to insert sports spaces into the social realm in urban, rural, and industrial areas. Accordingly, this paper explores sports-related spaces as a biopolitical agenda of the Republican Regime in the discourse of planning the city of Ankara and rural and industrial areas. Exploring history through the lens of sports reveals how the city of Ankara and rural and industrial areas formed a spatialized approach to the Republican Regime as a biopower to develop modern life.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Ali E. Tokatlioğlu, ‘Biyopolitika Kavramı Çerçevesinde 1938 Beden Terbiyesi Kanunu [The Physical Training Law of 1938 within the Framework of the Concept of Biopolitics]’ (PhD Diss., Istanbul University, 2020), 163.
2 Kazım Nami Duru, Kemalist Rejimde Öğretim ve Eğitim [Education and Training in the Kemalist Regime] (Ankara: Kanaat Kitabevi, 1938), 49.
3 Mutlu Türmen, Beden Terbiyesi: Erken Dönem Türk Spor Politikalarının Sosyo-Politik Temelleri [Physical Training: Socio-Political Foundations of Early Turkish Sports Policies] (Spor Yayınevi ve Kitabevi, 2018).
4 Cem Atabeyoğlu, Atatürk ve Spor [Atatürk and Sports] (Hisarbank Kültür Yayınları, 1981), 145.
5 Michel Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures of the College de France (1978-1979) (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008), 21–2.
6 Zahide Korkmaz, ‘Ankara 19 Mayıs Stadyumu’nu (Ankara Milli Stadı’nı) Okumak: Erken Cumhuriyer Dönemi Mekan, Toplumsal Yaşantı ve İdeoloji İlişkisi [Reading Ankara 19 May Stadium (Ankara National Stad): Space, Social Life and Ideology Relationship]’ (MS diss., Gazi University, 2007), 103.
7 Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 153.
8 Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), 39.
9 David Held, States and Societies (Oxford: Robertson, 1983), 243–7.
10 Pirkko Markula and Richard Pringle, Foucault, Sport and Exercise (London: Routledge, 2006); John Hargreaves, Sport, Power and Culture: A Social and Historical Analysis of Popular Sports in Britain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986); Jennifer S. Maguire, ‘Michel Foucault: Sport, Power, Technologies and Governmentality’, in Theory, Sport and Society, eds. Joseph Maguire and Kevin Young (London: Elsevier, 2002), 207–23; Debra Shogan, The Making of High Performance Athletes: Discipline, Diversity, and Ethics (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999); Henning Eichberg, Body Cultures Essays on Sport Space and Identity (London: Routledge, 1997).
11 İsmail Güven, Türkiye’de Devlet Eğitim ve İdeoloji [State Education and Ideology in Turkey] (Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi, 2000), 46.
12 Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century (New York: Vintage, 2000).
13 Kıvanç Kılınç, ‘Öncü Halk Sağlığı Projelerinin Kamusal Mekanı Olarak Sıhhiye’, in Başkent Üzerine Mekân-Politik Tezler [Spatio-Political Theses on the Capital], ed. Güven A. Sargın (İstanbul: İletişim, 2020), 119–56.
14 Tokatlioğlu, ‘Biyopolitika Kavramı Çerçevesinde 1938 Beden Terbiyesi Kanunu [The Physical Training Law of 1938 within the Framework of the Concept of Biopolitics]’, 44.
15 Devlet Planlama Teşkilat, ‘Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu [Physical Training and Sports Specialization Commission Report]’ (T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı, 1978), 37.
16 Özlem Arıtan, ‘Modernleşme ve Cumhuriyetin Kamusal Mekân Modelleri [Modernization and the Public Space Models of the Republic]’, Mimarlık Dergisi, 342 (2008), http://www.mimarlikdergisi.com/index.cfm?sayfa=mimarlik&DergiSayi=353&RecID=1822
17 Rod Sheard, The Stadium: Architecture for the New Global Culture (Singapore: Periplus, 2003), 62.
18 Arzu Nuhoğlu, Balin Koyunoğlu, and Elif Tan, ‘Türkiye Tasarım Kronolojisi Peyza [Turkish Design Chronology Landscape]’, 3. İstanbul Tasarım Bienali, 22 October–20 November 2016.
19 Foucault, Discipline and Punish; Foucault, The History of Sexuality.
20 Mirjam Galley, Building Communism and Policing Deviance in the Soviet Union, Residential Childcare, 1958–91 (London: Routledge, 2020), 9.
21 Nilay Erdem Ayyıldız, The Exercise of Biopower through Race and Class in the Harry Potter Series, (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2020), 83.
22 Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 136.
23 Markula and Pringle, Foucault, Sport and Exercise, 40.
24 David L. Andrews, ‘Desperately Seeking Michel: Foucault’s Genealogy, the Body, and Critical Sport Sociology’, Sociology of Sport Journal 10 (1993): 148–67; Richard Gruneau, ‘Modernization or Hegemony: Two Views on Sport and Social Development’, in Not Just A Game: Essays in Canadian Sport Sociology, eds. Jean Harvey and Hart Cantelon (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1988), 9–32; Jean Harvey and Robert Sparks, ‘The Politics of the Body in the Context of Modernity’ Quest 43 (1991): 164–89; Maguire, ‘Michel Foucault: Sport, Power, Technologies and Governmentality’, 207–23.
25 Cheryl L. Cole, ‘Resisting the Canon: Feminist Cultural Studies, Sport, and Technologies of the Body’, Journal of Sport and Social Issues 17, no. 2 (1993):77–97; Pirkko Markula, ‘Firm But Shapely, Fit But Sexy, Strong But Thin: the Postmodern Aerobicizing Female Bodies’, Sociology of Sport Journal 12, no. 4 (1995): 424–53; Nancy Theberge, ‘Reflections on the Body in the Sociology of Sport’, Quest 43 (1991): 148–67.
26 Genevieve Rail and Jean Harvey, ‘Body at work: Michel Foucault and the sociology of sport’, Sociology of Sport Journal 12 (1995): 164–79; Hargreaves, Sport, Power and Culture, 300.
27 Margaret C. Duncan, ‘The Politics of Women’s Body Images and Practices: Foucault, the Panopticon and Shape Magazine’, Journal of Sport and Social Issues 18 (1994): 48–65; Gwen Chapman, ‘Making Weight: Lightweight Rowing, Technologies of Power, and Technologies of the Self’, Sociology of Sport Journal 14 (1997): 205–23; Hargreaves, Sport, Power and Culture, 167; Juha Heikkala, ‘Discipline and Excel: Techniques of the Self and Body and the Logic of Competing’, Sociology of Sport Journal 10 (1993): 397–412; Markula, ‘Firm But Shapely, Fit But Sexy, Strong But Thin’, 424–53.
28 Hargreaves, Sport, Power and Culture, 13.
29 Markula and Pringle, Foucault, Sport and Exercise, 41.
30 Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, 139.
31 Shogan, The Making of High Performance Athletes, 19.
32 Nikolas Rose, Governing the Soul: The Shaping of the Private Self (London: Free Association Books, 1999), 17.
33 Ibid., 8.
34 John Bale, Landscapes of Modem Sport, (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1994), 2.
35 Eichberg, Body Cultures: Essays on Sport Space and Identity, 60.
36 Ibid., 62.
37 Ibid.
38 Nikolas Rose, Powers of Freedom: Reframing Political Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 73.
39 Nikolas Rose and Des Fitzgerald, The Urban Brain: Mental Health in the Vital City (Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2022), 211.
40 Ibid., 244.
41 Samuel M. Clevenger and David L. Andrews, ‘A Peaceful Path to’ Healthy Bodies: The Biopolitics of Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City’, Urban Planning 2, no. 4 (2017): 143.
42 Samuel M. Clevenger and David L. Andrews, ‘Regenerating the ‘Stock’ of the Empire: Biopower and Physical Culture in English Garden City Planning Discourse, 1898-1903’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 38, no. 2-3 (2021), 282–301.
43 Benjamin S. Flowers, Sport and Architecture (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017), 10.
44 Jerzy Kierkuc-Bielinski, ‘After the Games: The Legacy of Classical Stadia’, in Stadia: sport and vision in architecture (London: an exhibition at Sir John Soane’s Museum Catalog, 2012), 58–75.
Flowers, Sport and Architecture, 1. Stadia: Sport and Vision in Architecture, Soane Gallery Exhibition Catalog (2012).
45 Flowers, Sport and Architecture, 1.
46 James A. Leith, ‘Planning Space for the Masses in France 1789-1799’, Man and Nature L’homme et la nature 6 (1987): 227.
47 Nadine Rosol, ‘Performing the Nation: Sports, Spectacles and Aesthetics in Germany, 1926-1936’, Central European History 43, no. 4 (2010): 618.
48 Ibid., 618.
49 Diane Ghirardo, Italy: Modern Architectures in History (London: Reaktion Books, 2013), 102–3.
50 Matt Taylor, ‘Sport, Transnationalism and Global History’, Journal of Global History 8, no. 2 (2013): 200.
51 Helena Chance, ‘Mobilising the Modern Industrial Landscape for Sports and Leisure in the Early Twentieth Century’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 11 (2012): 1600–25.
52 Geraint John and Dave Parker, Olympic Stadia: Theatres of Dreams (London: Routledge, 2020), 6.
53 Georges Vigarello, ‘Bedeni Çalıştırmak [Training the Body]’, in Bedenin Tarihi 3: Bakıştaki Değişim: 20. Yüzyıl İçinde, ed. Alain Corbin, Jean-Jacques, and Courtine Georges Vigarello, trans. Saadet Özen (İstanbul: YKY, 2006), 131–63.
54 Chance, ‘Mobilising the Modern Industrial Landscape for Sports and Leisure in the Early Twentieth Century’, 1600–25.
55 Peter Clark, Marjaana Niemi and Jari Niemelä, Sport, Recreation and Green Space in the European City (Helsinki: Studia Fennica Historica 2009), 10.
56 Ibid., 10.
57 Tokatlioğlu, ‘Biyopolitika Kavramı Çerçevesinde 1938 Beden Terbiyesi Kanunu [The Physical Training Law of 1938 within the Framework of the Concept of Biopolitics]’, 108.
58 ‘Belediye Kanunu 1580 [Municipality Law 1580]’, T.C. Resmî Gazete, April 3, 1930.
59 ‘Köy Konunu 442 [Village Law 442]’, T.C. Resmî Gazete, March 18, 1924.
60 Law No. 3530, the original text of article 21 cited in Hasan Doğan and Hifsiye Pulhan, Sports and Recreation in the Modern Industrial Campuses of the Early Republican Turkey (1923–1945), The International Journal of the History of Sport 39, no. 5 (2022): 510–35.
61 Metin Tükenmez, ‘Atatürk ve Spor [Atatürk and Sports]’, Aydınlık Gazetesi, November 7, 2013, 19.
62 Carl Christoph Lörcher, Ankara Şehrinin İmâr ve İnşâ Planına Âid Izahnamedir [Explanation of the Development and Construction Urban Plan of Ankara City] (İstanbul: Metanet Matbaası, 1924) cite in Ali Cengizkan, Ankara 1924 Lörcher Raporu [Ankara 1924 Lörcher Report] (Ankara: Ankara Enstitüsü Vakfı, 2004), 186–7.
63 Katharina Borsi, ‘Drawing the region: Hermann Jansen’s vision of Greater Berlin in 1910’, The Journal of Architecture 20, no. 1 (2015): 68.
64 Paolo Volorio, ed., Architettura e Sport: Paulo Vietti-Violi (Vogogna: Catalogo delle mostre, 2015).
65 İnci Aslanoğlu, ‘The Italian Contribution to 20th-Century Turkish Architecture’ Environmental Design: Journal of the Islamic Environmental Design Research Centre 5 (1990): 158–60.
66 Document Summary: Dr. Vietti Violi’nin spor sahaları genel vaziyet durumunu Genel Sekreterliğe sunduğu [Dr. Vietti Violi’s report on the general condition of the sports fields presented to the General Secretaria], Reference Info: 569 – 2266 – 1, Additional Folder: 2. Document Date: 25.07.1938 Institution Code: 490-1-0-0/Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi.
67 Paulo Vietti-Violi, ‘Il Centro Sportivo di Ankara, L’Ippodromo di Maia Merano [Ankara Sports Center, Maia Merano Racecourse]’, Rassegna di Architettura 3, no. 10 (1937) in Korkmaz, ‘Ankara 19 Mayıs Stadyumu’nu (Ankara Milli Stadı’nı) Okumak: Erken Cumhuriyer Dönemi Mekan, Toplumsal Yaşantı ve İdeoloji İlişkisi [Reading Ankara 19 May Stadium (Ankara National Stad): Space, Social Life and Ideology Relationship]’, 43.
68 Murat Özmaden and Fikret Soyer, Harun Özmaden, ‘Turkey Training Community Alliance (TTCA) Evaluation of the Sport by Objective Function’, Journal of Human Sciences 13, no. 3 (2016): 6104–23.
69 Yiğit Akın, Gürbüz ve Yavuz Evlatlar, Beden Terbiyesi ve Spor [Robust and tough children, Physical Training and Sports] (İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2004), 55–85.
70 Orhan Karadağ, ‘19 Mayis Yıkılıyor [May 19 Is Being Demolished]’, http://www.viralspor.com/19-mayis-yikiliyor/ (accessed May 20, 2020).
71 Official Report of at Grand National Assembly of Turkey, June 29, 1938.
72 Spor Alemi (1920–1938); Türk Spor (1929–1934); Olimpiyat (1931–1934); Spor Postası (1934–1936); Top (1934–1935); Türk Spor Kurumu Dergisi (1936–1938); Kırmızı–Beyaz (1937–1948); Okul–Spor (1939–1940); Beden Terbiyesi ve Spor (1939–1942).
73 Ahmet Fetgeri, ‘Kadınlarımız ve Spor [Our Women and Sports]’, Türkspor 2, no. 8 (1930): 60.
74 Sibel Bozdogan, Modernism and Nation Building: Architectural Culture in Early Republican Turkey (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), 5.
75 İlhan Tekeli, ‘Ankara’nın Başkentlik Kararının Ülkesel Mekan Organizasyonu ve Toplumsal Yapıya Etkileri Bakımından Genel Bir Değerlendirilmesi v.d. [A General Evaluation of Ankara’s Capital City Decision in Terms of Its Effects on National Spatial Organization and Social Structure etc.]’, in Tarih İçinde Ankara [Ankara in History], ed. Erdal Yavuz and Ümit Nevzat Uğurel (Ankara: ODTÜ Yayını, 1984), 84–6.
76 Levent Uluiş, ‘Lörcher’in Ankara’sı: Anti-Modernist ve Otoriter Eğilimleri Yansıtan Bir Şehir Tahayyülü [Lörcher’s Ankara: A City Imagination Reflecting Anti-Modernist and Authoritarian Tendencies]’, July 15, 2009, http://mimdap.org/2009/07/lorcherin-ankarasy/ (accessed November 10, 2023).
77 İbrahim Bozkurt, ‘Jansen Planı [The Jansen Plan]’, Atatürk Ansiklopedisi, https://ataturkansiklopedisi.gov.tr/bilgi/jansen-plani/(accessed November 9, 2023).
78 Doğan Hasol, ‘Erken Cumhuriyet Döneminde Planlama [Planning in the Early Republic Period]’, Cumhuriyet Gazetesi, April 28, 2022, http://www.doganhasol.net/erken-cumhuriyet-doneminde-planlama.html (accessed November 10, 2023).
79 Directorate of State Archives Republican Arhives, Document Summary: Ankara şehir imar proje raporları, Reference Info:122-867-2, Additional Folder:101, Document Date: 09.03.1929-00.00.0000, Institution Code:30-10-0-0/Muamelat Genel Müdürlüğü, 27.
80 Korkmaz, ‘Ankara 19 Mayıs Stadyumu’nu (Ankara Milli Stadı’nı) Okumak [Reading Ankara 19 May Stadium (Ankara National Stad]’, 37.
81 ‘Stadyum Yapılıyor [Stadium Is Being Built]’, Hakimiyeti Milliye Newspaper, May 8, 1933, 5.
82 Korkmaz, ‘Ankara 19 Mayıs Stadyumu’nu (Ankara Milli Stadı’nı) Okumak [Reading Ankara 19 May Stadium (Ankara National Stad]’, 4.
83 Ibid., 62.
84 İsmet İnönü in 1936, cite in Korkmaz, Korkmaz, ‘Ankara 19 Mayıs Stadyumu’nu (Ankara Milli Stadı’nı) Okumak [Reading Ankara 19 May Stadium (Ankara National Stad)], 62.
85 ‘İki resim iki devir [Two Images, Two Eras]’, Ulus Newspaper, May 19, 1938, 20.
86 Nilüfer Gündüz, ‘Tarihsel süreç içinde Türkiye’de kent parklarının oluşumu (Cumhuriyet Dönemi kent parkları) [The formation of urban parks in Turkey throughout the historical process (City parks of the Republic Period)]’ (Ms Diss., Ankara University, 2002).
87 Zeynep Uludağ, ‘Cumhuriyet Döneminde Rekreasyon ve Gençlik Parkı Örneği [Example of Recreation and Youth Park in the Republic Period]’, in 75 Yılda Değişen Kent ve Mimarlık [The Changing City and Architecture in 75 Years], ed. Yıldız Sey (İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yayını, 1998), 65–74.
88 Hüseyin Ç. Keskinok, ‘Urban planning experience of Turkey in the 1930s’, ODTÜ Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi 27, no. 2 (2010): 173–88.
89 Bozdogan, Modernism and Nation Building, 76–7.
90 Ibid.
91 Burcu F. Demirci, İlknur T. Doğrusoy and Özlem Arıtan, ‘Tanzimat Döneminden Günümüze Türkiye’de Siyasal ve Kültürel Dönüşümler Park Kullanımı [Political and Cultural Transformations in Turkey from the Tanzimat Period to the Present, Use of Park]’, TAÇ Mimarlık Arkeoloji Kültür Sanat Dergisi 8 (2016): 50–9.
92 Ibid., 75.
93 Aydın Özdemir, ‘Katılımcı Kentli Kimliğinin Oluşumunda Kamusal Yeşil Alanların Rolü: Ankara Kent Parkları Örneği [The Role of Public Green Spaces in the Formation of Participatory Urban Identity: The Example of Ankara City Parks]’, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 1 (2007): 150.
94 Özlem Arıtan, ‘Modernleşme ve Cumhuriyetin Kamusal Mekân Modelleri [Modernization and the Public Space Models of the Republic]’ Mimarlık 342 (2008), http://www.mimarlikdergisi.com/index.cfm?sayfa=mimarlik&DergiSayi=353&RecID=1822 (accessed January 15, 2023).
95 İlhan Tekeli, Modernite Aşılırken Kent Planlaması [Urban Planning as Modernity Surpasses] (İstanbul: İmge Kitabevi, 2001), 26.
96 Akın, Gürbüz ve Yavuz Evlatlar, Beden Terbiyesi ve Spor [Robust and tough children, Physical Training and Sports], 187.
97 Köy spor sahaları hakkında öğütler [Advice on village sports fields], translated by Süleyman Fehmi (Ankara: Beden Terbiyesi Genel Direktörlüğü, 1939).
98 Fay Kirby, Türkiye’de Köy Enstitüleri [Village Institutes in Turkey] (İstanbul: İmece Yayınları, 1962), 235–6.
99 Ahmet Mutlu, Bir Kır Ütopyası: Osmanlıdan Cumhuriyete İdeal Köy [A Rural Utopia: The Ideal Village from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic] (Ankara: İdealkent Yayınları, 2022), 213.
100 Bozdogan, Modernism and Nation Building, 101.
101 Özlem Arıtan, ‘Modernleşme ve Cumhuriyetin Kamusal Mekân Modelleri [Modernization and the Public Space Models of the Republic]’ Mimarlık 342 (2008), http://www.mimarlikdergisi.com/index.cfm?sayfa=mimarlik&DergiSayi=353&RecID=1822 (accessed January 15, 2023).
102 Akın, Gürbüz ve Yavuz Evlatlar, Beden Terbiyesi ve Spor [Robust and tough children, Physical Training and Sports], 190.
103 Selim Sırrı, Köy Mekteplerinde Beden Terbiyesi [Physical Training in Schools] (İstanbul: Devlet Matbaası, 1933).
104 Selim Sırrı, Köy Mekteplerinde Beden Terbiyesi [Physical Training in Schools], cited in Akın, Gürbüz ve Yavuz Evlatlar, Beden Terbiyesi ve Spor [Robust and tough children, Physical Training and Sports], 189.
105 Kirby, Türkiye’de Köy Enstitüleri [Village Institutes in Turkey], 234.
106 Ibid., 234.
107 Kemal Ateş, Sessiz Şampiyon: Olimpiyat Kürsüsünde Bir Köy Enstitülü [Silent Champion: A Village Institute on the Olympic Podium] (İstanbul: H2O Kitap, 2021).
108 Kirby, Türkiye’de Köy Enstitüleri [Village Institutes in Turkey], 235.
109 Halit Ağanoğlu, Köy Enstitüleri Yolunda [On the Road to Village Institutes] (İstanbul: Ahmet Sait Basımevi, 1949), 58–9.
110 Kirby, Türkiye’de Köy Enstitüleri [Village Institutes in Turkey], 236.
111 Özlem Arıtan, ‘Kapitalist/Sosyalist Modernleşme Modellerinin Erken Cumhuriyet Dönemi Mimarlığının Biçimlenişine Etkileri-Sümerbank KİT Yerleşkeleri Üzerinden Yeni Bir Anlamlandırma Denemesi [The Effects of Capitalist/Socialist Modernization Models on the Formation of Early Republican Architecture - A New Attempt at Meaning Through Sümerbank State Economic Enterprise Campuses]’ (PhD Diss., Dokuz Eylül Üniversity, 2004); Burak Asiliskender, ‘Modernleşme ve Konut Cumhurıyet’in Sanayi Yaptırımları ile Kayseri’de Mekansal ve Toplumsal Değişim [Modernization and Housing; Industrial Investments of the Republic and Spatial and Social Change in Kayseri]’ (PhD Diss., İstanbul Teknik University, 2008).
112 Arıtan, ‘Kapitalist/Sosyalist Modernleşme Modellerinin Erken Cumhuriyet Dönemi Mimarlığının Biçimlenişine Etkileri-Sümerbank KİT Yerleşkeleri Üzerinden Yeni Bir Anlamlandırma Denemesi [The Effects of Capitalist/Socialist Modernization Models on the Formation of Early Republican Architecture - A New Attempt at Meaning Through Sümerbank State Economic Enterprise Campuses]’, 42.
113 Sevket S. Aydemir, Tek Adam, volume 3: Mustafa Kemal 1922-1938 [One Man, volume 3: Mustafa Kemal 1922-1938] (İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi, 2004), 356.
114 Duygu Kacar, ‘A Unique Spatial Practice for Transforming the Social and Cultural Patterns: Atatürk Forest Farm in Ankara’, METU Journal of the Architecture 28, no.1 (2011): 165–78.
115 Ekim D. Ayhan, ‘Workers’ Health and Architecture: A Reading on Eskişehir Sugar Factory within Turkish Modernization’ (Ms Diss., Middle East Technical Universiyt, 2006), 42.
116 Ayşe D. Kopuz, ‘Spatial Evaluation of Primary Sugar Factories in Early Republican Period in Turkey’, ITU A|Z 14, no. 3 (2017): 127–41.
117 Niko Besnier, Susan Brownell and Thomas F. Carter, The Anthropology of Sport: bodies, borders, biopolitics (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018), 196.
118 Falih Rıfkı Atay, ‘Ankara Stadyomu [Ankara Stadium]’, Ulus Newspaper, December 15, 1936, 1.
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Hasan Doğan
Hasan Doğan received his BArch and MSc in Architectural design from Eastern Mediterranean University Faculty of Architecture (2008–2016). He earned his PhD degree in architecture from the Eastern Mediterranean University (2022). His research interests address topics in theory and history of architecture with a special focus into the industrial campuses and modern periods.