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Original Articles

Gales of creative destruction and the opportunistic incumbent: The case of electric vehicles in California

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Pages 391-408 | Published online: 09 Aug 2006
 

Abstract

This paper explores the introduction of electric vehicles in response to Californian regulatory pressures as an example of a disruptive technology. The central thesis is that this disruption may open the automobile market to new entrants but only if they collaborate with incumbent automobile manufacturers. This appears to support Schumpeter's argument that large incumbent firms possess innovation advantages over the small entrepreneurial entrant. However, these innovatory advantages lie in the downstream complementary assets required for success in the automobile market.

Notes

1. J. A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (Harper & Row, 1942).

2. See, for instance, A. Pilkington, Manufacturing strategy regained: Evidence for the demise of best practice, California Management Review, 41(1), 1998, pp. 31–42.

3. A. Pilkington, Transforming Rover: Renewal Against the Odds 1981–1994 (Bristol, Bristol Academic Press, 1996).

4. J. Froud, C. Haslam, S. Johal, and K. Williams, Breaking the chains? A sector matrix for motoring, Global Competition and Change, 2, 1999.

5. C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation (London, Frances Pinter, 1982).

6. D. Mowery and N. Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989).

7. Ibid, p. 182.

8. E. Penrose, Theory of the Growth of the Firm (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1959, p. 84).

9. Rumelt goes on to suggest that "strengths" could include unique resources, reputation, or brand image (for a development, see: J. Kay, Foundations of Corporate Success (London, OUP, 1993).

10. K. Pavitt, Sectoral patterns of technical change: Towards a taxonomy and a theory, Research Policy, 13(9), 1984, pp. 343–373.

11. G. Dosi, Technical Change and Industrial Transformation (London, Macmillan, 1984).

12. R. Rothwell and J. P. Gardiner, Re-innovation and robust designs: Producer and user benefits, Journal of Marketing Management, 3(3), 1988, pp. 372–387.

13. D. A. Kirsch, The Electric Car and the Burden of History (New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press, 2000).

14. R. Foster, Innovation: The Attacker's Advantage (London, Macmillan, 1986).

15. C. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma (Boston, Harvard Business School Press, 1997).

16. As discussed in J. L. Bower and C. M. Christensen, Disruptive technologies: Catching the wave, Harvard Business Review, Jan–Feb, 1995, pp. 43–53.

17. W. M. Cohen and D. A. Leventhal, Absorptive capacity: A new perspective on learning and innovation, Administrative Science Quarterly, 35(1), 1990, pp. 128–152.

18. G. S. Day and P. J. H. Schoemaker, Avoiding the pitfalls of emerging technologies, California Management Review, 42(2), 2000, pp. 8–33.

19. D. J. Teece, G. Pisano and A. Shuen, Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management, University of Berkeley, mimeo (November, 1991).

20. Ibid, p. 511.

21. Admittedly Utterback's empirical sample is small: 29 cases in total, of which 23 discontinuous innovations came from outside the industry, four from inside the industry and two proved inconclusive. See: J. M. Utterback, Mastering the Dynamics of Innovation (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1994).

22. J. C. Spender, Industry Recipes (Oxford, Blackwell, 1989).

23. M. Tushman and P. Anderson, Technological discontinuities and organizational environment, Administrative Science Quarterly, 31, 1986, pp. 436–456.

24. H. W. Chesbrough and D. J. Teece, When is virtual virtuous? Harvard Business Review, Jan–Feb, 1996, pp. 65–73.

25. A. M. Brandenberger and J. M. Nalebuff, Co-opetition (New York, Doubleday, 1996).

26. See, for example: T. Gouldson, Fine tuning the Dinosaur? Environmental product innovation and strategic threat in the automobile industry: A case study of the Volkswagon Audi Group, Business Strategy and The Environment, 2(3), 1993, pp. 12–21; M. B. Schiffer, Taking Charge: The Electric Automobile in America (Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institute Press, 1994); D. Sperling, New Transportation Fuels: A Strategic Approach to Technological Change (Berkeley, CA, UC Press, 1988).

27. W. W. Suen, Managing International Technology Alliances: Ballard Power and Fuel Cell Vehicle Development', PICMET'01, July, Portland, Oregon, 2001.

28. California Energy Commission, ABCs of AFVs: A Guide to Alternative Fuel Vehicles (Sacramento, CA, 1999, Fifth Edition).

29. The term "zero polluting at source" does not mean that no pollution is produced in generating power for the battery. There has been a range of contradictory studies examining life-cycle emissions from electric and conventionally powered vehicles. However, most conclude that the arguments about moving the pollution from point of usage to point of generation depend largely on the make up of the electricity generating plants and the efficiency of the EV power storage device (see P. L. Adcock and P. McCusker, How beneficial are EVs to the environment? Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technology 95, 1995, pp.232–238.).

30. We should note that, in recent years, the car companies have also begun exploring the possibility of fuel cell technology, as well as the potential of alternative fuels, such as, methane and liquefied natural gas.

31. See: A. J. Scott, Southern California: The Detroit of electric cars? Access, Transportation Research at the University of California, 3, 1993, pp. 8–13; J. Slifko and D. L. Rigby, Industrial policy in Southern California: The production of markets, technologies, and institutional support for Electric Vehicles, Environment and Planning, 27(6), 1995, pp. 933–954.

32. J. MacKenzie, The Keys to the Car: Electric and Hydrogen Vehicles in the 21st Century (New York, WRI, 1994).

33. P. L. Adcock and P. McCusker, How beneficial are EVs to the environment? Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technology 95, 1995, pp.232–238.

34. R. De Neufville, S. Connors, F. Field, D. Marks, D. Sadoway and R. Tabors, The Electric Car unplugged, Technology Review, January, 1996, pp. 30–36.

35. Although fuel cell cars are not expected, even on an optimistic basis, to be commercially viable much before 2015, see: A. A. Evers, Go to where the market is! Challenges and opportunities to bring fuel cells to the international market, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 28(7), 2003, pp. 725–733.

36. S. Narang, Advanced flywheel technology, Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technology 95, 1995), pp. 137–144.

37. T. Grudkowski and E. Polley, Exceeding DOE mid-term performance with ultracapacitors, Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technology 95, 1995, pp. 131–137.

38. J. Murray, B. Lane, K. Lillie and J. McCallum, The Report of the Alternative Fuels Group of the Cleaner Vehicles Task Force: An Assessment of the Emissions Performance of Alternative and Conventional Fuels DTI Automotive Directorate, (Norwich, HMSO, 2000).

39. M. Cote, Technology Forcing Regulations for Electric Vehicles, The 12th Electric Vehicle Symposium, EV12, December, 1994, pp. 272–277.

40. M. Shnayerson, The Car that Could: The Inside Story of GM's Revolutionary Electric Vehicle (New York, Random House, 1996).

41. The station car term relates to railway station and not estate cars as the term normally is used in the UK.

42. S. Renzi and R. Crawford, Powering the next generation automobile: DaimlerChrysler's venture into fuel cell technology, Corporate Environmental Strategy, 7(1), 2000, pp. 38–50.

43. See: S. Toyota, The Electric Vehicle: The challenge of the next century, Report of EVS 13, Osaka, June, Electrifying Times, 4, 1996, p. 1; D. Coup, Toyota's approach to alternative technology vehicles: The power of diversification strategies, Corporate Environmental Strategy, 6(3), 1999, pp. 258–269.

44. M. Callon, Society in the making: The study of technology as a tool for sociological analysis, in: W. Bijker, T. Hughes and T .Pinch, The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Cambridge, MA: 1989, pp. 83–103). For a historical review of some of the non-US regulations and activities of overseas manufacturers, see Quandt (1995).

45. G. S. Day and P. J. H. Schoemaker, Avoiding the pitfalls of emerging technologies, California Management Review, 42(2), 2000, pp. 8–33.

46. R. N. McGrath, Patterns in the legitimation of emerging electrochemical technologies in the Electric Vehicle Industry, Technology Management: Strategies and Applications, 3, 1997, pp. 145–159.

47. For example, switching to the use of hydrogen fuel, were it technically feasible at present, would require overcoming consumers' fears over its safety in use.

48. M. Weber and R. Hoogma, Beyond national and technological styles of innovation diffusion: A dynamic perspective on cases from the energy and transport sectors, Technology and Strategic Management, 10(4), 1998, pp. 545–566.

49. S. Croom, P. Romano and M. Giannakis, Supply chain management: An analytical framework for critical literature review, European Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, 6(1), 2000, pp. 76–83.

50. See: U. Arnold and E. E. Scheuing, Creating a factory within a factory, in: R. J. Baker and P. Novak, (eds) Purchasing Professional: The Stars on the Horizon, A Collection of Presentation from NAPM 82nd Annual International Purchasing Conference, NAPM (Tempe, AZ, 1997, pp. 79–84); R. B. Handfield, G. L. Ragatz, K. J. Petersen and R. M. Monczka, Involving suppliers in new product development, California Management Review, 42(1), 1999, pp. 59–82.

51. C. M. Harland, R. C. Lamming and P. D. Cousins, Developing the concept of supply strategy, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 19(7), 1999, pp. 650–673.

52. U. Arnold, New dimensions of outsourcing: A combination of transaction cost economics and the core competencies concept, European Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management, 6(1), 2000, pp. 23–29.

53. M. Hobday, Product complexity, innovation and industrial organisation, Research Policy, 26, 1998, pp. 689–710.

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