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Abstract
Australian interests have been considered viable targets for Islamist terrorists since at least 2001, and Australians have suffered from attacks in Bali in 2002 and 2005, and Jakarta in 2004 and 2009. Moreover, Australian citizens have been involved in militant Islamist networks since the late 1980s, and similar to other Western countries in recent years there have been examples of “home-grown” plots to carry out domestic terrorist attacks. This article seeks to clarify the nature of the contemporary security threat within Australia by analysing the involvement of Australian citizens and residents in Islamist terrorism, both at home and abroad. The results build upon previous research findings revealing that while the profile of Australian jihadis is unique in terms of its exact manifestation, there is overall conformity with generally observed trends in Islamist terrorism in other Western countries.
Keywords:
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge the very helpful comments made by those who reviewed the original draft of this article.
Notes
*Around time of known first involvement relating to offence and at time of arrest. (n = 40).
**Non-Australian heritage.
***Greatly underestimated since most “individual” cases were part of much larger networks.
*Leaders have only been clearly identified in the two Operation Pendennis groups. Information suggesting possible leaders within the Operation Neath group has yet to be confirmed and is thus presently excluded.
**Cases include: the Ayub twins, Roche, Hicks, Thomas, Brigitte and Lodhi, and Ul-Haque. Note that these figures count remaining (unknown) cases as having no handlers.
***Cases include: Roche, Mallah, Brigitte & Lodhi, Pendennis, Neath.
It is noteworthy that an al-Qaeda attack during the 2000 Sydney Olympics was considered a “very real possibility” but ultimately no concrete intelligence was uncovered (see Sally Neighbour, “The Australian Connections,” Four Corners, June 12, 2003, http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2003/transcripts/s878332.htm; Sally Neighbour, In the Shadow of Swords (Sydney: HarperCollins, 2004), 206–207.
Transnational Terrorism: The Threat to Australia (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2004), 5, http://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/terrorism
Counter-Terrorism White Paper: Securing Australia, Protecting Our Community (Canberra: Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2010), http://www.dpmc.gov.au/publications/counter_terrorism/index.cfm; Paul Maley, “Focus on Home-Grown Terror in White Paper,” The Australian, October 10, 2009, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/focus-on-home-grown-terror-in-white-paper/story-e6frg6nf-1225785217885
Pete Lentini, “Antipodal Terrorists? Accounting for Differences in Australian and ‘Global’ Neojihadists,” in The Globalization of Political Violence: Globalization's Shadow, ed. Richard Devetak and Christopher Hughes (London: Routledge, 2008), 182–202; Louise Porter and Mark Kebbell, “Radicalization in Australia: Examining Australia's Convicted Terrorists,” Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, First Published on June 11, 2010.
Sam Mullins, “Home-Grown Terrorism: Issues & Implications” Perspectives on terrorism, 1, no. 3 (2007), http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php?option=com_rokzine&view=article&id=12
Ibid.
Robert Leiken, Bearers of Global Jihad? Immigration and National Security after 9/11 (Washington: The Nixon Centre, 2004); Robert Leiken and Steven Brooke, “The Quantitative Analysis of Terrorism and Immigration: An Initial Exploration,” Terrorism and Political Violence 18, no. 4 (2006): 503–521; Mitchell Silber and Arvin Bhatt, Radicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat (New York: New York City Police Department, 2007); Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008); Lorenzo Vidino, Al Qaeda in Europe: The New Battleground of International Jihad (New York: Prometheus Books, 2006).
A Picture of the Nation: A Statistician's Report on the 2006 Census (Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009), 2, 7–8, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@nsf/mf/2070.0?OpenDocument
Ibid., 42; Muslims in Australia: A Snap Shot (Canberra: Department of Immigration and Citizenship, undated), http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/pdf_doc/Muslims_in_Australia_snapshot.pdf
About Australia: Muslims in Australia (Canberra: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2008), http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/muslims_in_australia.html
Ibid.
Amanda Wise and Jan Ali, Muslim Australians and Local Government: Grassroots Strategies to Improve Relations between Muslim and Non-Muslim-Australians (Sydney: Centre for Research on Social Cohesion, 2008), 21, http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/grassroots/
“Exit Iraq,” Sydney Morning Herald, 2008, http://www.smh.com.au/interactive/iraqwithdrawal/main.html
“Australian PM Visits Afghanistan,” BBC News, November 11, 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8354433.stm
Petter Nesser, “Jihad in Europe; Recruitment for Terrorist Cells in Europe,” in Paths to Global Jihad: Radicalisation and Recruitment to Terror Networks (Kjeller, Norway: Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, 2006), 2–21, http://www.investigativeproject.org/documents/testimony/41.pdf
Transnational Terrorism: The Threat to Australia (see note 2 above), 66.
Neighbour, In the Shadow of Swords (see note 1 above), 163–165.
Transnational Terrorism: The Threat to Australia (see note 2 above), 66–67.
First Assistant Director-General, Security Division, ASIO, “Extending National Security Intelligence” (paper presented at the Safeguarding Australia Conference, Canberra, ACT, July 12, 2005), http://www.asio.gov.au/Media/Contents/safeguarding_australia_2005.aspx
“Australians Attacked,” Sydney Morning Herald, September 9, 2004, http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/09/09/1094530760527.html
Ibid.
“Eleven Killed in Embassy Bombing,” The Age, September 9, 2004, http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/09/09/1094530752760.html
“Second Aussie Dies in Mumbai Terrorist Attacks,” The Australian, November 28, 2008, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/second-australian-killed-in-mumbai/story-0-1111118167713
Carmel Egan and Tom Reilly, “Three Australians Killed at Breakfast Table,” The Age, July 19, 2009, http://www.theage.com.au/world/three-australians-killed-at-breakfast-table-20090718-doz4.html
Neighbour, In the Shadow of Swords (see note 1 above), 333–334.
See Stewart Bell, The Martyr's Oath: The Apprenticeship of a Homegrown Terrorist (Toronto: John Wiley, 2005).
Neighbour, In the Shadow of Swords (see note 1 above), 321–322; Transnational Terrorism: The Threat to Australia (see note 2 above), 71.
R. v. Roche, WASCA 4, (Supreme Court of Western Australia, Jan. 14, 2005), http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/wa/WASCA/2005/4.html
Liz Jackson, “Willie Brigitte,” Four Corners, February 9, 2004, http://www.abc.net. au/4corners/content/2004/s1040952.htm
Rafael Epstein, “Documents Allege Al Qaeda Contact with Australians,” The 7.30 Report, September 3, 2003, http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2003/s938401.htm
See Petter Nesser, “Chronology of Jihadism in Western Europe 1994–2007: Planned, Prepared and Executed Terrorist Attacks,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 31, no. 10, 924–946.
David King, “DPP Drops Charges Against Ul-Haque” The Australian, November 12, 2007, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/dpp-drops-charges-against-ul-haque/story-0-1111114857076?from=mostpop
Lentini, “Antipodal Terrorists? Accounting for Differences in Australian and ‘Global’ Neojihadists” (see note 4 above).
Porter and Kebbell, “Radicalization in Australia: Examining Australia's Convicted Terrorists” (see note 4 above).
Edwin Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe: Their Characteristics and the Circumstances in Which They Joined the Jihad: An Exploratory Study (The Hague: Clingendael Institute, 2006); Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004).
These are: 1. Abdul Rahim & Abdul Rahman Ayub, 2. Jack Roche, 3. Muhamed Mubayyid, 4. Noorpolat Abdulla, 5. David Hicks, 6. Jack Thomas, 7. Mamdouh Habib, 8. Zaky Mallah, 9. Izhar Ul-Haque, 10. Willie Brigitte & Faheem Lodhi, 11. Abdul Salam Mohammed Zoud, 12. Belal Khazaal, 13. Feiz Mohamed, 14. Abdul Nacer Benbrika et al. (Melbourne Pendennis group), 15. ME et al. (Sydney Pendennis group), 16. Tallaal Adrey, 17. Matthew Stewart, 18. Hassan Kalache & Jill Courtney, 19. John Amundsen, 20. Warye Kanie, 21. Muhammad & Abdullah Ayub & Marat Sumolsky, 22. Ahmed Ali, 23. Omar Hadba et al., 24. Mohamed Haneef, 25. Nayef El Sayed et al.
Edwin Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe: Their Characteristics and the Circumstances in Which They Joined the Jihad: An Exploratory Study (The Hague: Clingendael Institute, 2006), 51.
Lentini, “Antipodal Terrorists? Accounting for Differences in Australian and ‘Global’ Neojihadists” (see note 4 above).
Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (see note 7 above), 111.
Ibid., 48–50.
AIVD, Violent Jihad in the Netherlands: Current Trends in the Islamist Terrorist Threat (The Hague: General Intelligence and Security Service, 2006); Michael Taarnby-Jensen, Jihad in Denmark: An Overview and Analysis of Jihadi Activity in Denmark 1990–2006 (Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies, 2006).
Silber & Bhatt, Radicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat (see note 7 above).
Leiken and Brooke, “The Quantitative Analysis of Terrorism and Immigration: An Initial Exploration” (see note 7 above). Dataset accessed November 9, 2007, http://www.nixoncenter.org/index.cfm?action=publications
Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (see note 35 above).
Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe: Their Characteristics and the Circumstances in Which They Joined the Jihad: An Exploratory Study (see note 35 above).
Ibid.; Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 7 above), 59–60.
Ibid., 49.
Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 7 above), 58.
Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (see note 35 above), 50.
Ibid.
Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 7 above), 48–50.
Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (see note 35 above), 78–80.
Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (see note 35 above), 42.
Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (see note 35 above), 82.
Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 7 above), 63.
Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (see note 35 above), 42.
R v. Benbrika & Ors, VSC 21 (Supreme Court of Victoria, Feb. 3, 2009), ¶ 127, http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/vic/VICSC/2009/21.html
Kim Arlington, “Suspect ‘Wanted to Blow Up Parliament,’” News.com.au, January 10, 2007, http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,21038880–1702,00.html
See, for example, John Horgon, The Psychology of Torrorism (New York: Routledge, 2005).
Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 7 above), 62–65; Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (see note 35 above), 80–91.
Sageman, Understanding Terror Network (see note 35 above)s, 81.
Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 7 above), 64.
Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (see note 35 above), 42.
R v. Benbrika & Ors (2009) (see note 57 above), ¶ 42.
R. v. Elomar & Ors, NSWSC 10 (Supreme Court of New South Wales, Feb. 15, 2010) ¶ 10, http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWSC/2010/10.html
See Bakker, Jihadi Terrorists in Europe (see note 35 above), 59–74.
“Escaped Man Wanted Over Holsworthy Plot,” The Australian, March 25, 2010, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/escaped-man-wanted-over-holsworthy-plot/story-fn3dxity-1225845162870
Silber & Bhatt, Radicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat (see note 7 above).
Petter Nesser, “How Does Radicalization Occur in Europe?” (paper presented at the Second Inter-Agency Radicalization Conference, Washington DC, July 10, 2006), http://www.mil.no/multimedia/archive/00080/DHS_foredrag_80480a.pdf
R v. Mallah, NSWSC 358 (Supreme Court of New South Wales, Feb. 11 2005) ¶ 63, http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/supreme_ct/2005/358.html
Raffaello Pantucci, “Did Somalia's al-Shabaab Plan to Attack the Australian Military?” Terrorism Monitor 7, no. 27 (2009): 4–6.
R. v. Kent, VSC 375 (Supreme Court of Victoria, Sep. 4, 2009), http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/vic/VSC/2009/375.html
Karen Greenberg and Jeff Grossman, eds., Terrorist Trial Report Card, September 11th 2008 (New York: The Center on Law and Security, 2008).
Darren Goodsir, “Traitors Within: Australian Network Ready to Aid Extremists,” Sydney Morning Herald, July 14, 2003, http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/07/13/1058034875836.html
Lentini, “Antipodal Terrorists? Accounting for Differences in Australian and ‘Global’ Neojihadists” (see note 4 above).
Leiken, Bearers of Global Jihad? Immigration and National Security After 9/11 (see note 7 above); Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 7 above), 89–108.
Scott Shane, “New Cases Test Optimism on Extremism by U.S. Muslims,” New York Times, December 11, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/12/us/12assess.html?tntemail1=y&emc=tnt&pagewanted=all
“Islamist Terrorism a Threat for at Least a Generation,” The Age, May 2, 2009, http://www.theage.com.au/national/islamist-terrorism-threat-for-at-least-a-generation-20090501-aqaf.html
Porter and Kebbell, “Radicalization in Australia: Examining Australia's Convicted Terrorists” (see note 4 above).
E.g., Sageman, Leaderless Jihad (see note 7 above), 109–123; Tim Stevens and Peter Neumann, Countering Online Radicalisation: A Strategy for Action (London: International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence, 2009), http://www.thecst.org.uk/docs/countering_online_radicalisation1.pdf
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