Dams, Terrorism, and Water Nationalism’s Response to Globalization and Development: The Case of South Asia

ABSTRACT

Building on a global research sweep of terrorist organizations’ (as well as other non-state actors such as separatist and insurgent groups) use of fresh water as a target, weapon, or source of control, this paper analyzes attacks on major water projects (specifically dams and other related infrastructure) in South Asia—the region identified to have had the largest number of recorded water-related violent incidents. Focusing on India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, and the post 9/11 period through 2019, the paper explores how large water infrastructures (and their environs) have become hot spots for violence between states that use water development projects to consolidate power, garner local loyalty, and create a national narrative and non-state actors who attempt to target these same projects to assert indigenous self-determination, subvert state power, or challenge state authority through terrorist means. Since fresh water is shared across borders, dam projects can become entangled in regional political disputes further exacerbating violent conflict between state and non-state actors. Given its impacts on water resources, climate change may act as a “threat multiplier” by enhancing local grievances, providing both government and terrorist groups additional incentives for exploitation, and further contributing to instability. The analysis provided here borrows from and contributes to the fields of development, environment and security, and terrorism studies.

KEYWORDS:

• South Asia
• terrorism
• hydropolitics
• dams

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

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36. Marwa Daoudy, The Origins of the Syrian Conflict: Climate Change and Human Security (Cambridge University Press, 2020a).

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38. Ibid.

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40. See note above 35.

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44. Ibid.

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47. Strategic Foresight Group, “Water and Violence: The Euphrates,” Blue Peace Bulletin, V 8 (2019), https://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/EUPHRATES.pdf; Pacific Institute, “Water Conflict Chronology” (Oakland, CA, Pacific Institute, 2019), https://www.worldwater.org/water-conflict/; and CAN, The Role of Water Stress in Instability and Conflict (2017).

48. See note above 13.

49. Fergusson 2015

50. Pacific Institute, “Water Conflict Chronology” (Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute, 2019), https://www.worldwater.org/water-conflict/.

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58. See note above 47.

59. (DHS) Department of Homeland Security, Worldwide Attacks Against Dams (2012), https://damfailures.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Worldwide-Attacks-Against-Dams.pdf.

60. See note above 7.

61. Ibid.

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64. Vibha Arora and Ngmjahao Kipgen, “We Can Live Without Power, but We Can’t Live Without Our Land: Indigenous Hmar Oppose the Tipaimukh Dam in Manipur,” Sociological Bulletin 61, no. 1 (2012), http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.23620944&site=eds-live.

65. Ibid.

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68. See note above 63.

69. Koijam Pushparani and Jiten Yumnam, “Nuances of Singda Dam Expansion Plan,” E-Pao, October 10, 2013, http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=news_section.opinions.Politics_and_Governance.Nuances_of_Singda_Dam_Expansion_Plan.

70. Ibid.

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73. Hueiyen News Service, “Encroachers to be Evicted from Singda Dam Area,” E-Pao, April 18, 2013, http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=27.190413.apr13.

74. ANI, “Four Workers Abducted in Manipur,” Business Standard, 2014, https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/four-workers-abducted-in-manipur-114013000501_1.html.

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76. Ibid.

77. See note above 63.

78. See note above 61.

79. Dawn, “Mirani Dam Project,” Dawn, April 14, 2003, https://www.dawn.com/news/94556.

80. Naseer Memon, “Disaster Unleashed by Mirani Dam,” Dawn, August 20, 2007, https://www.dawn.com/news/262007.

81. Ibid.

82. Dawn, “Mirani Dam Disaster: Turbat Residents on Hunger Strike,” Dawn, February 19, 2013, https://www.dawn.com/news/787135.

83. Brandon Keim, “Pakistan’s climate change floods, seen from above.” Wired, August 24, 2010, https://www.wired.com/2010/08/pakistan-flood-pictures/.

84. Ayesha Siddiqi, “Climatic Disasters and Radical Politics in Southern Pakistan: The Non-Linear Connection,” Geopolitics 19, no. 4 (2014): 885–910.

85. Ibid.

86. Christopher Crellin, “Pakistan: Confronting Gwadar’s Water Crisis,” Future Directions International (2018), http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/pakistan-confronting-gwadars-water-crisis/.

87. Behram Baloch, “Gwadar Water Woes Worsen as Supply from Mirani Dam Halted,” Dawn, February 5, 2018, https://www.dawn.com/news/1387425.

88. International Crisis Group, “China-Pakistan Economic Corridor: Opportunities and Risks,” International Crisis Group, June 29, 2018, https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/pakistan/297-china-pakistan-economic-corridor-opportunities-and-risks.

89. Muhammad Akbar Notezai, “Thirsty in Gwadar,” Dawn, September 10, 2017, https://www.dawn.com/news/1356787.

90. Muzammil Pasha, “Expanding the power of Tarbela Dam,” The World Bank, February 6, 2013, http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/02/06/expanding-the-power-of-tarbela-dam.

91. Web Desk, “Loadshedding Protests Continue Across Punjab,” The Express Tribune, June 18, 2012, https://tribune.com.pk/story/395393/loadshedding-protests-continue-across-punjab.

92. The Express Tribune, “Out on the Streets: PTI Lawmakers Lead Protest Against Prolonged Power Outages,” The Express Tribune, November 3, 2013. https://tribune.com.pk/story/626421/out-on-the-streets-pti-lawmakers-lead-protest-against-prolonged-power-outages/.

93. Adnan Aamir, “Obstacles Remain for Pakistan Dam Backed by China,” The Interpreter, 2020, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/obstacles-remain-pakistan-dam-backed-china.

94. WebDesk, “Five Rangers Injured in Attack on Check Post: Diamer-Bhasha Dam,” Pakistan Today, March 15, 2015, https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2015/03/15/five-rangers-injured-in-attack-on-check-post-diamer-bhasha-dam/.

95. Aasim Sajjad Akhtar, “The Overdeveloped Alavian Legacy,” In New perspectives on Pakistan’s political economy: State, class, and social change, edited by Matthew McCartney and S. Akbar Zaidi (Cambridge, 2019), 56–74.

96. George Wang, Wei Hu, and Colin Duffield, “Risk Mitigation in Managing a Mega Project—a Case Study of Gomal Zam Dam Construction Weight and Cloud Model,” Journal of Risk Analysis and Crisis Response (JRACR), no. 4, (2014), https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.2991/jrarc.2014.4.1.1.

97. Dawn, “Chinese Stop Work on Gomal Dam: Abduction of Engineers,” Dawn, October 17, 2004, https://www.dawn.com/news/397270.

98. Alok Bansal, “Why Pakistan’s Rebels are Attaching Chinese Projects,” Last modified July 17, 2012, https://www.rediff.com/news/column/why-pakistans-rebels-are-attacking-chinese-projects/20120717.htm.

99. Muhammad Zafar, “Outsiders Targeted: Orgy of Bloodshed in Turbat,” Dawn, April 12, 2015, https://tribune.com.pk/story/868547/outsiders-targeted-orgy-of-bloodshed-let-loose-in-turbat/.

100. Alok Bansal, “Why Pakistan’s Rebels are Attaching Chinese Projects,” Last modified July 17, 2012. https://www.rediff.com/news/column/why-pakistans-rebels-are-attacking-chinese-projects/20120717.htm.

101. See note above 96.

102. Nqash4victor, “Abducted staff of WAPDA Gomal Zam Dam project D I Khan,” September 11, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dWPTPzCcynA.

103. Zahir Shah Sherazi, “Taliban Release Eight Abducted Employees of Gomal Zam Dam,” Dawn, September 14, 2013, https://www.dawn.com/news/1042836.

104. Katharina Nett and Lukas Ruttinger, “Insurgency, Terrorism, and Organized Crime in a Warming Climate: Analyzing the Links between Climate Change and Non-State Armed Groups,” Climate Diplomacy Initiative (German Federal Foreign Office and Adelphi, 2016).

105. Rhodnate Ahlers, Luigia Brandimarte, Ineke Kleemans, Said Hashmat Sadat, “Ambitious Development on Fragile Foundations: Criticalities of Current Large Dam Construction in Afghanistan,” Geoforum 54 (2014), 49–58. https://doiorg.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.03.004.

106. Jawid Tabish, “Iran Faces Renewed Afghan Dam Sabotage Claims,” Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 2011, https://iwpr.net/global-voices/iran-faces-renewed-afghan-dam-sabotage-claims.

107. Radio Free Europe, “Captured Taliban Commander: ‘I Received Iranian Training’,” Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty, August 23, 2011, https://www.rferl.org/a/captured_taliban_commander_claims_trained_in_iran/24305674.html.

108. Omar, “Afghan, Coalition Forces Drive Iran-Backed Taliban Militants from Farah,” Salaam Times, 2018, http://afghanistan.asia-news.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2018/12/05/feature-01.

109. Global Terrorism Database, “Incident summary,” Global Terrorism Database, 2010, https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/IncidentSummary.aspx?gtdid=201011130004.

110. Omar, “Afghan, Coalition Forces Drive Iran-backed Taliban Militants from Farah,” Salaam Times, 2018, http://afghanistan.asia-news.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2018/12/05/feature-01.

111. Mujib Mashal, “What Iran and Pakistan Want from the Afghans: Water,” Time, December 2, 2012, http://world.time.com/2012/12/02/what-iran-and-pakistan-want-from-the-afghans-water/.

112. Ibid.

113. Shawn Snow, “Strategic District in Paktia, Afghanistan falls to the Taliban,” The Diplomat, August 29, 2016, https://thediplomat.com/2016/08/strategic-district-in-paktia-afghanistan-falls-to-the-taliban/.

114. See note above 106.

115. Scott Peterson, “Why a Dam in Afghanistan Might set Back Peace,” The Christian Science Monitor, July 30, 2013, https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2013/0730/Why-a-dam-in-Afghanistan-might-set-back-peace.

116. Ibid.

117. Devirupa Mitra, “The amazing Indian story behind Herat’s Salma Dam,” The Wire, June 4, 2016, https://thewire.in/diplomacy/the-story-behind-herats-salma-dam.

118. Ibid.

119. Ibid.

120. AsiaPulse News, “India to Resume Work on Afghanistan’s Salma Dam,” General OneFile, 2006, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A143307891/ITOF?u=miam11506&sid=ITOF&xid=356a5f2d.

121. Shapoor Saber, “Iran Again Accused of Trying to Halt Afghan Dam,” Institute for War & Peace Reporting, February 19, 2010, https://iwpr.net/global-voices/iran-again-accused-trying-halt-afghan-dam.

122. Pajhwok Reporter, “Plot to blow up Dam Hatched in Quetta: NDS,” Pajhwok Afghan News, April 1, 2013, https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2013/04/01/plot-blow-dam-hatched-quetta-nds.

123. Jeff Goodson, “Infrastructure and Irregular Warfare: A Good Year for Afghan Dams,” RealClear Defense, December 19, 2016, https://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2016/12/20/infrastructure_and_irregular_warfare_afghan_dams_110524.html.

124. Jawid Tabish, “Iran Faces Renewed Afghan Dam Sabotage Claims,” Institute for War and Peace Reporting, 2011, https://iwpr.net/global-voices/iran-faces-renewed-afghan-dam-sabotage-claims.

125. See note above 120.

126. Rhodnate Ahlers, Luigia Brandimarte, Ineke Kleemans, Said Hashmat Sadat, “Ambitious Development on Fragile Foundations: Criticalities of Current Large Dam Construction in Afghanistan,” Geoforum, 54 (2014): 49–58, https://doiorg.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.03.004.

127. Richard Parry, “UN Fears ‘Disaster’ Over Strikes Near huge Dam,” Independent, November 8, 2001, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/un-fears-disaster-over-strikes-near-huge-dam-9159118.html.

128. Soraya Sarhaddi Nelson, “Restoring an Afghan Dam is n Taliban Stronghold,” NPR, April 24, 2008, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=89821168.

129. Sune Engel Rasmussen, “British Engineers Evacuated from Key Afghan Dam as Taliban Approach,” The Guardian, September 18, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/18/british-engineers-evacuated-key-afghan-dam-taliban-approach-kajaki.

130. See note above 120.

131. Ibid.

132. Ali, “Taliban Reportedly Pledged Water access to Iran in rEturn for Support,” Salaam Times, 2021, https://afghanistan.asia-news.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2021/02/25/feature-01.

133. Radio Azadi, “Taliban Capture Key Afghan Dam, Army bases as U.S. Forces Exit,” Gandhara, May 6, 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-captures-dahla-dam-afghanistan/31241007.html; IANS, “Taliban Fired Mortars on Salma Dam, Symbol of Afghan-India Friendship,” Sify.com, July 16, 2021, https://www.sify.com/news/taliban-fired-mortars-on-salma-dam-symbol-of-afghan-india-friendship-news-national-vhqrOufajjeif.html.

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Additional information

Notes on contributors

Tamanna Ashraf

Tamanna Ashraf Ph.D. in International Relations (Florida International University, 2020); Adjunct instructor in the Department of Politics and International Relations at FIU. Her research focuses on the connections between domestic and international politics in water security and hydropolitics. In particular, her research looks at how water security threats are created to shape both domestic and international policy agendas, including how hydro-hegemony can shape hydropolitics between riparians.

Shlomi Dinar

Shlomi Dinar Ph.D. in International Studies (Johns Hopkins University, 2004); Associate Dean for Graduate Studies and Innovation in the Steven J. Green School of International and Public Affairs and Professor in the Department of Politics and International Relations at Florida International University (2004-); current main interests: climate change, environment, and security.

Jennifer Veilleux

Jennifer Veilleux Ph.D. in Geography (Oregon State University, 2014) Professor of Practice in the School of Science & Engineering at Tulane University and Research Associate in the Steven J. Green School of International and Public Affairs at Florida International University (2015-); current main interests: water security in transboundary river basins and indigenous water rights.