The Relational Dimension of Radicalization: Context and Tie Formation in Dutch Salafi-Jihadi Networks

ABSTRACT

Despite the widely held notion that processes of radicalization tend to happen in relation to others, systematic evidence on the social context in which actors meet and form ties is scarce. This is problematic, as without a more thorough understanding of the relational dimension of radicalization, any strategy to intervene may turn out less effective than perhaps hoped for. Based on our access to detailed police information on eleven Dutch Salafi-Jihadi networks (2001–2014; 273 actors), this article presents a descriptive analysis of the social context in which actors meet and form ties. In most networks, we observe pre-existing family and friendship ties, actors to frequent Salafi mosques and radicalizing settings, and committed actors engaged in functional roles. We also find indications for these elements to facilitate actors to form ties. It is important to note however that we also observe exceptions, both in terms of prevalence and impact of the relational factors we study. In the article, we describe our detailed empirical findings and reflect on the (differential) social context is which actors participating in Dutch Salafi-Jihadi networks meet and form ties.

KEYWORDS:

• Networks
• radicalization
• tie formation
• terrorism
• Salafi-Jihadi

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

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32. Hafez and Mullins, “The Radicalization Puzzle.”

33. Bakker, “Jihadi Terrorists in Europe”; Hafez and Mullins, “The Radicalization Puzzle”; F. Marone, “Ties that Bind: Dynamics of Group Radicalisation in Italy’s Jihadists Headed for Syria and Iraq,” The International Spectator 52, no. 3 (2017), doi: 10.1080/03932729.2017.1322800.

34. Hafez and Mullins, “The Radicalization Puzzle”; Garcia-Calvo and Reinares, “Patterns of Involvement among Individuals Arrested for Islamic State-related Terrorist Activities in Spain, 2013–2016”; Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks.

35. Sageman, Leaderless Jihad.

36. L. Lindekilde, S. Malthaner and F. O'Connor, “Peripheral and Embedded: Relational Patterns of Lone-Actor Terrorist Radicalization,” Dynamics of Assymetric Conflict 12, no. 1 (2019): 20–41.

37. Bouhana and Wikstrom, “Al Qa’ida-Influenced Radicalization.”

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39. Bouhana and Wikstrom, “Al Qa’ida-Influenced Radicalization”; Hafez and Mullins, “The Radicalization Puzzle”; Munton et al., “Understanding Vulnerability and Resilience in Individuals to the Influence of Al Qaida Violent Extremism”; L. Vidino, F. Marone, and E. Entenmann, “Fear Thy Neighbor: Radicalization and Jihadist Attacks in the West” (Report. Ledizioni LediPublishing, 2017).

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41. See note 37 above.

42. De Graaf, “The Nexus Between Salafism and Jihadism in the Netherlands.”

43. Malthaner, “Radicalization.”

44. See note 37 above.

45. Ibid.

46. Ibid.

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56. Argomaniz and Bermejo, “Jihadism and Crime in Spain”; Sageman, Leaderless Jihad.

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58. Dawson, “Clarifying the Explanatory Context for Developing Theories of Radicalization.”

59. Horgan et al., “Towards a Typology of Terrorism Involvement.”

60. Neumann and Rogers, “Recruitment and Mobilisation for the Islamist Militant Movement in Europe.”

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68. De Poot and Sonnenschein, “Jihadi Terrorism in the Netherlands”; De Bie, “How Jihadist Networks Operate.”

69. Ibid.

70. Next to some actors only playing minor roles, several explanations may account for this relatively small share of actors eventually prosecuted in the Netherlands. First, Dutch law only since 2004 includes forming a terrorist organization and recruitment for foreign fighting as criminal offenses. Second, some of the actors holding foreign nationalities were prosecuted abroad. Third, some of the actors residing illegally in the Netherlands were expelled without facing trial in the Netherlands.

71. C. S. Van Nassau, “Salafistische moskeeorganisaties in Nederland; markt en Competitieve voordelen nader onderzocht” (Report. WODC, the Netherlands, October, 2017).

72. M. De Koning, J. Wagemakers, and C. Becker, Salafisme. Utopische idealen in een weerbarstige praktijk (Almere: Parthenon, 2014a); K. M. H. D. Roex, “Leven als de profeet in Nederland: Over de salafi-beweging en democratie” (PhD Thesis, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2013).

73. Bouhana and Wikstrom, “Al Qa’ida-Influenced Radicalization.”

74. See note 34 above.

75. Kruglanski et al., The Three Pillars of Radicalization.

76. Hafez and Mullins, “The Radicalization Puzzle”; See note 37 above.

77. Sageman, Leaderless Jihad.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Dutch National Coordinator for Security and Counterterrorism.

Notes on contributors

Casper S. van Nassau

Casper S. van Nassau is researcher at the Research and Documentation Centre (WODC) of the Dutch Ministry of Justice and Security and a PhD candidate at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. In his PhD study, he focuses on the social and spatial environment in which actors form ties and Salafi-Jihadi networks form and function.

Christianne J. de Poot

Christianne J. de Poot is professor of Criminalistics at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and professor of Forensic Science at the Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences and the Dutch Police Academy. She has published extensively on Salafi-Jihadi networks in the Netherlands and the Dutch counterterrorism framework.