Death and the erotic woman: the European gendering of mortality in times of major religious change

Abstract

This paper explores the use of European erotic death imagery produced in the Death and the Maiden (D&M) genre in two time periods. It compares and contrasts D&M imagery produced by the Germanic-speaking proto/early-Reformation artists, Hans Baldung (alias Grien) (c1484–1545), Niklaus Manuel (known as Deutsch) (c1484–1530) and Sebald Beham (known as Hans Sebald Beham) (1500–1550) which highlighted the folly, futility and transience of earthly vanities during the transition from Roman Catholic to Protestant Christianity, with contemporary calendar art produced by Cofani Funebri (from 2003) and Lindner (from 2010) which advertise coffins manufactured in the increasingly secular countries of Italy and Poland. Drawing on Biblical narrative, Augustinian theology and European socio-cultural perceptions of gender, this paper argues that these D&M images are highly eroticised and place woman as signifiers of transcient life (vanitas) and earthly pleasure (voluptas), juxtaposing her with a masculine/male representation of death; Death being imaged as an individual in the sixteenth century, and as a coffin in the contemporary works. The paper also contextualises the imagery in terms of traditional European Christian notions of life and death, as informed by the Biblical Fall narrative, with its elucidations of sin, concupiscence and punishment. It thus asserts that both socio-cultural and religious attitudes towards gender are highly significant in D&M imagery and indeed in terms of the artworks, argues that the masculine signifier of Death can be placed as Adam, whilst the Maiden, as fecund life, represents Eve. However, the overt eroticism of both sets of artworks also allows for a reading that draws on Messaris' [(1997). Visual persuasion; the role of images in advertising. London: Sage] notion that visual images ‘make a persuasive communication due to iconicity; the emotional response to the visual image presented’. Thus, this paper contrasts D&M imagery produced over 400 years apart to examine consciously erotic gendered thanantological allegories of women as vanitas and voluptas, and the male/masculine as representations of Death.

Keywords::

• gender
• erotic
• death
• Christianity
• Reformation Europe
• contemporary Europe

Notes

^1. For the purposes of this paper, sexualised designates images of women that highlight their sexual maturity. Historically, this is typically in terms of nudes imaged with breasts, hips and a rounded belly; symbols of female fertility that allude to the sex act. It also applies to images where clothing focuses the viewer's attention on the sexual areas of the female body such as breasts and genitals. The term erotic is used to designate images of women that are designed evoke a sense of titillation or sexual pleasure in the viewer Eroticism is intimated in terms of actions, gestures and/or positions that emphasise the sexual nature of the woman, and/or in regards to clothing, such as depictions of women in intimate lingerie, or fetish wear.

^2. Where possible, I have provided URL links for the images discussed. The Italian Cofani Funebri calendars are only available from 2009 via the site of the co-owner and photographer, Maurizio Matteucci, while the Polish Lindner calendar portfolio is held on their website http://www.kalendarzlindner.pl/editions/ (accessed 3 April 2014).

^3. In The Production of Space, Lefebvre describes the cultural geography of space through his notion of abstract space. He argues that abstract space is masculine and culturally and symbolically connected to capitalism and commodification. He notes also that it ‘relates negatively to that which perceives it … ’ (Lefebvre, 1991, p. 51). This can be related to coffins as the funeral casket industry dates only to the late nineteenth century and the burgeoning of consumer culture (Quigley, 2005, p. 84), and further, the coffin is generally perceived as a negative cultural artefact

^4. Whilst studies indicate that across Europe there is a general decrease in traditional Christian beliefs and practices (Catholic and Protestant), it would be inaccurate to assume other religions and traditions are seeing such a decline. For a brief overview of secularisation see Halman and Draulans (2006).

^5. For a fuller and far more nuanced picture of gender during this time see Muravyeva and Tovio (2013).

^6. Religious women such as saints and especially Mary, Mother of Jesus, are for brevity's sake, excluded from this discussion. However, it must be noted that the common perception of women as defective can be found in St. Thomas Aquinas’ Summa Theologica, first part, question 92; a stance Anquinas disagrees with, although, talking an Aristotelian stance on women, he did believe that maleness was species standard – see Hartel (1993) for a full discussion.

^7. Although most 3L3D images were of wealthy males, some imaged three wealthy living women with three skeletons, such as that found in the commissioned Psalter of Robert de Lyle (c1310).

^8. Occasionally DoD features fully enfleshed or rotting corpses but typically, death in DoD was signified by a skeleton.

^9. Examples of both ‘DoD’ and ‘Three Living/Three Dead’ imagery can be found on the web site http://www.lamortdanslart.com/danse/dance.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^10. Examples of the Lucerne images can be found on the web site http://goeurope.about.com/od/lucerne/ig/Lucerne-Pictures/lucerne-bridge-art.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^11. There are a few images of a skeletal Death in women's attire, but the Niklaus Manual mural is the only one in existence that depicts Death as distinctly female.

^12. For example in Dante'sThe Divine Comedy Canto X: 97–137 the proud carry heavy stones on their backs to ensure they only look at the ground.

^13. On venial (non-mortal) sins could be purged in purgatory, committing mortal sins, such as murder, meant an eternal punishment in hell.

^14. As with all movements, it must be remembered that Luther and other Reformers had a socio-historical context to their ideas and Catholic views on purgatory had never been uncontentious (see Wei, 2012).

^15. In essense, Death in D&M becomes a noun, a precusor to the Grim Reaper figure that is prevelant in popular culture.

^16. See Young Woman Attacked by Death; or The Ravisher (Dürer 1495) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:02_The_Ravisher.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^17. Dürer, it must be noted was not part of the anti-Catholic movement and indeed was official court artist to the Holy Roman Emperor (Wisse, 2002).

^18. Sin in Romans 5:12 refers to the disobedience of Adam and Eve in taking fruit from the forbidden tree in the Garden of Eden (Genesis 3).

^19. The copy of the image can be found in Guthke (1999, p. 119).

^20. For a fuller exploration of Augustine on sin, sex and death, see Clack (2002, pp. 21–37).

^21. See Reggio (2012) for further details on Luther on marriage.

^22. See http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Death_and_Three_Nude_Women.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^23.http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/aquinas-homo.asp (accessed 31 July 2013).

^24. See http://wolfgangcapito.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/fille_berne.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^25. It must be noted though that the text did not exceed the accepted limits of the day.

^26. See http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Niklaus_Manuel_Deutsch_003.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^27. See http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/baldung/ages/girl-death.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^28. See http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hans_Baldung_007b.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^29. See Adam and Eve (1511 – http://0.tqn.com/d/arthistory/1/0/y/Q/hbg_art_02.jpg), Eve, Serpent and Death (1512 – http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Hans_Baldung_Grien_-_Eve,_Serpent_and_Death.JPG), Adam and Eve (1519 – http://a1reproductions.com/adam-and-eve-1519-by-hans-baldung-grien_h650.jpg) and Adam and Eve (1531 – http://www.museothyssen.org/en/thyssen/ficha_obra/935) (accessed 31 July 2013).

^30. See http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hans_Baldung_025.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^31. Whilst works such as The Malleus Maleficarum equated witchcraft with carnal lust and claimed women were sexually insatiable and formed pacts with the Devil to achieve gratification, Luther believed sexual desire to be an issue for both genders (Karant-Nuun & Wesiner-Hanks, 2003, p. 13).

^32. See Sullivan (2000) for a fuller exploration of Grien and his Witch images. The Witch and the Dragon (1515) gives an indication of the overt sexuality of the witches he drew; see http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hans_Baldung_-_Stehende_Hexe_mit_Ungeheuer.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^33. See especially Adam and Eve (1524) and Eve, the Serpent, and Death (1510–12).

^34. See https://www.flickr.com/photos/kintzertorium/2985750653/ (accessed 31 July 2013).

^35. See http://www.hans-sebald-beham.com (accessed 31 July 2013).

^36. See http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sebald_Beham_001.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^37. It must be noted that whilst there are some images of lesbian activity from this period of history, and a few trials of women accused of female sodomy, masturbation and even transvestitism, such acts were considered an abomination, connected with prostitution and witchcraft (Phillips & Reay, 2011). In terms of theology, female sexual desire was conceived of only in phallocentric terms, and as these works are works informed by Reformist theology, it must be assumed that androgyny or homosexuality were not considered by the artists. Including these particular acts in D&M would alter the message, which was firmly memento mori; women here symbolised life and lust, not just lust, and in being placed with Death highlighted the necessity for a focus on the after-life.

^38. See http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Death_and_the_Standing_Nude.jpg (accessed 31 July 2013).

^39. In Italian, death (morte) is linguistically feminine, as it is in Polish (śmierć).

^40. In e-mail correspondence with both companies this reading of the coffin as masculine being linguistically feminine (bara or casso da morto/cassa funebre), as it is in Polish (trumnai). The directors of both companies have produced their calendars to be erotic and have chosen locations, models and props specifically to achieve this end.

^41. This aspect of the imagery has, as far as I am aware, yet to be determined accurately.

^42. Although a small sample, none of my lesbian friends found these calendars erotic, and all noted the coffin signified masculinity to them.

^43. See http://www.cofanifunebri.it/2003-calendar.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^44. Notably, the poetic messages were from the start in English, not Italian.

^45. For secularisation in Italy see Sansonetti (2009, p. 138), and for Poland, see Arnold (2012, p. 204).

^46. See http://www.cofanifunebri.it/2004-calendar.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^47. See http://www.tonyrogers.com/humor/coffin_company.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^48. See http://www.cofanifunebri.it/2004-calendar.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^49. See http://www.cofanifunebri.it/2006-calendar.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^50. See http://www.cofanifunebri.it/2007-calendar.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^51. See http://www.cofanifunebri.it/2008-calendar.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^52. See http://www.cofanifunebri.it/2009-calendar.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^53. These photographs are deliberately unavailable on their website.

^54. See http://www.cofanifunebri.it/2010-calendar.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^55. See http://www.cofanifunebri.it/2011-calendar.htm (accessed 31 July 2013).

^56. See http://www.funeralcommunity.com/en/blog/article/4561 (accessed 31 July 2013).

^57. The D&M theme for marketing coffins is interesting in terms of the concept of sex selling as sexual desire is typically used to increase the overall desirability of the product (see Reichert & Lambiase, 2003). However, using eroticism to sell a coffin raises two issues. First, whilst it might be acceptable for someone having their car fixed to see an erotic calendar in the mechanics workshop, it would not be appropriate for the bereaved to see one in the funeral directors. Therefore, these cannot be calendars that death-professionals would purchase. Second, no one is sexier when they are dead than when they were alive and thus the calendars are unlikely to be a marketing tool to the individual coffin consumer. E-mail correspondence with Cofanifunebri suggests that sales of coffins have increased since the calendars were produced, as has their profile as a coffin manufacturer througout Europe. The company was unable however to explain who purchased these calendars (which are for sale on-line) and were unwilling to discuss why this specific style of imagery was employed by their marketing team.

^58. See http://www.kalendarzlindner.pl/2010-en/ (accessed 31 July 2013).

^59. Erotic death related calendars are still rare. In 2007, Men of MortuAriès featured topless male funeral directors and morticians as a fund-raising stunt (see http://www.menofmortuaries.org/), while the medical company Eizo produced a series of erotic shots for their 2010 medical imagining publicity campaign (see http://www.medgadget.com/2010/06/eizo_medical_imaging_pinup_calendar_2010.html) (accessed 31 July 2013).

^60. See http://www.kalendarzlindner.pl/2011-en/ (accessed 31 July 2013).

^61. See http://www.kalendarzlindner.pl/2012-en/ (accessed 31 July 2013).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

C. Welch

Dr Christina Welch is a senior lecturer in Religious Studies at the University of Winchester, and programme leader for the masters degree in Death, Religion and Culture. Her research interests lie in the field of visual and material culture and their intersection with religion, with a specialism in the role that these forms of representation play in the construction of spiritual identities. She has recently published work on European toy representations of North American Indians, and on late-medieval cadaver monuments.