Duncan Sandys and the Projection of British Power after Suez

Abstract

Duncan Sandys' tenure at the Ministry of Defence has usually been seen as one of the major turning points in post-war British defence policy. The consensus is that Sandys was a prime mover in bringing about a contraction of Britain's military capabilities in an era when economic constraints, coupled with the need for Britain to play a full part in maintaining the Western deterrent against Soviet expansion in Europe, dictated that Britain's ability to project military power beyond Europe had to shrink. Sandys' task was “radically pruning Britain's military capacity and adopting a defence posture more in keeping with a medium-size power.” This shift in policy was brought about by the April 1957 Defence White Paper. It amounted to “the biggest change in military policy ever made in normal times.” But emphasising that the Sandys White Paper was part of the wider process of decolonisation and nuclearisation overlooks the fact that in the seven years after it was published the British used conventional forces to mount no fewer than three expeditionary operations outside Europe.

Notes

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2. N. Piers Ludlow, “Sandys, (Edwin) Duncan, Baron Duncan-Sandys (1908–1987),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/39858

3. Cmnd. 124. Defence. Outline of Future Policy, 4 April 1957.

4. Ibid.

5. Minister of Defence, Defence Requirements, 15 September 1947, CAB (Cabinet Archives, The National Archives, Kew, London) 131/4/DO(47)68.

6. JPS, Future Defence Policy, 16 December 1949, CAB 21/3503/JP(49)124.

7. Chiefs of Staff, 96 meeting, 27 June 1950, CAB 21/1988/COS(50); Note by the COS, Situation in Korea, 28 June 1950, CAB 131/9/DO(50)48; Cabinet Defence Committee, 11 meeting, 28 June 1950, CAB 131/8/DO(50); Chiefs of Staff, 100 meeting, 30 June 1950, CAB 21/1988/COS(50); Cabinet Defence Committee, 15 meeting CDC, 24 July 1950, CAB 131/8/DO(50).

8. I. Speller, “A Splutter of Musketry? The British Military Response to The Anglo–Iranian Oil Dispute, 1951,” Contemporary British History, 17(2003), pp. 39–66

9. Egypt Committee, 31 meeting, 25 September 1956, CAB 134/12167/EC(56); Statement by Brigadier A. W. Brown, Deputy Commander, 10th Armoured Division on alleged incident at Derna, Cyrenaica involving men of the 1st Battalion KRRC on or about the weekend 29/30 September, 1956, WO [War Office Archives, The National Archives, Kew London] 216/908; Lt.- Gen. C.F.C. Coleman (GOC Eastern Command) to CIGS, 10 October 1956, WO 216/907; Note by the Secretary, Staff Conference on 11 October 1956, CAB 134/1217/EC(56)59; Gen. Sir R. Gale (C-in-C Northern Army Group) to CIGS, 12 October 1956, WO 216/907; Gen. Sir G. Erskine (GOC Southern Command) to CIGS, 15 October 1956, WO 216/907; Times, 5 & 19 October, 8, 9, 13, 21, 23 & 24 November 1956; MELF to War Office, 4 October 1956, WO 32/16713; Commander Troops Malta to War Office, 7 October 1956, WO 32/16713; Adjutant-General. Problems of Reservists, 19 October 1956, WO 32/16713.

10. Cmnd. 124. Defence, p. 2.

11. Ibid., pp. 5–6.

12. Sandys, Review of Defence Expenditure, 15 June 1953, CAB 134/809/DP(M)(53)5; Sandys, Defence policy and expenditure, 19 November 1953, CAB 134/809/DP(M)(53)15.

13. Ministerial Committee on defence policy, 23 November 1953, Ibid.

14. PUS, Committee on the organization of the army, 18 May 1956, WO 163/641/AC/P(56)8.

15. Head, Long term defence policy, 21 December 1956, WO 163/641/AC/G(56)16.

16. CIGS, The stationing of an army reserve in Kenya, 15 March 1957, WO 163/634/AC/P(57)14; The Long Term Order of Battle of the Army, 19 March 1957, WO 163/634/AC/P(57)16; JPS, Interim directive for global war for Commanders-in-Chief, Middle East, 5 July 1957, DEFE 6/41/JP(57)70(Final).

17. The Long Term Order of Battle of the Army, 19 March 1957, WO 163/634/AC/P(57)16.

18. Defence policy in South East Asia. Minutes of a meeting held at 10 Downing Street, 15 July 1957, CAB 130/131/Gen 606/2 meeting; JPS, Long Term Operational Requirement for Amphibious Assault Lift, 27 September 1957, DEFE 6/40/JP(57) 6(Final); Future policy. Re-deployment of United Kingdom forces, 1958–62, 27 January 1958, CAB 130/139/Gen 624/6.

19. Sandys, “The roles and composition of the Royal Navy,” 14 November 1957, CAB 13/18/D(57)28.

20. Notes and Information on Training Matters, No. 29, 1 September 1964, WO 231/323; Notes and Information on Training Matters, No. 31, 1 September 1965, WO 231/325; I. Speller, “Amphibious operations, 1945 to 1998,” in R. Harding, ed., The Royal Navy, 1930–2000 (London), pp. 217–19, 223–24.

21. DGMT, Notes on tactics and weapons No. 1 (59), May 1959, WO 279/302; DCIGS, Review of helicopters in the army, 19 September1960, WO 163/645/G(60)47.

22. Memorandum by the Minister of Defence, United Kingdom requirements in the Middle East, 3 July 1956, CAB 131/17/DC(56)17; Report by JPS, Stationing of part of the Strategic Reserve in Kenya, 23 July 1956, DEFE 6/35/JP(56)94(Revised Final); Future policy. Re-deployment of United Kingdom forces, 1958–62, 27 January 1958, CAB 130/139/Gen 624/6.

23. Brigadier Butler to War Office, 17 December 1956, WO 288/74; Note by the Joint Secretaries, Transport Aircraft, 20 August 1957, WO 163/634/AC/P(57)61.

24. VCIGS and DCIGS, The Army's requirements for freighter aircraft, 11 September 1958, WO 163/630/ECAC/P(58)69.

25. Minister of Defence, Military Transport Aircraft, 15 December 1958, CAB 131/20/D(58)81.

26. Cabinet Conclusions, 10 February 1959, CAB 128/33/CC(59)6.

27. VCIGS and DCIGS, The Army's requirements for freighter aircraft, 11 September 1958, WO 163/630/ECAC/P(58)69; Minister of Defence, Military Transport Aircraft, 15 December 1958, CAB 131/20/D(58)81; Cabinet Defence Committee, 29 meeting, 19 December 1958, CAB 131/19/D(58); VCIGS and DCIGS, Tactical airlift requirement up to 1975, 6 May 1960, WO 163/645/P(60)14.

28. DCIGS, Capabilities and limitations of the Argosy “C” Mark I, 11 August 1961, WO 163/657/ECAC/G(61)19; VCIGS and DCIGS, Tactical airlift requirement up to 1975, 6 May 1960, WO 163/645/P(60)14;. Minutes of the 673 meeting of the ECAC, 19 August 1960, WO 163/654/ECAC/M(60)12.

29. Notes and Information on Training Matters, No. 23 (61), 1 September 1961, WO 231/317; Notes and Information on Training Matters, No. 34, 1 March 1967, WO 231/328; Speller, “ The seaborne/airborne concept,” pp. 62–3.

30. JPS, Long Term Deployment of the armed services, 9 July 1959, DEFE [ The National Archives, Kew London, UK, Ministry of Defence Archives] 6/57/JP(59)79(Final).

31. Note by the Secretary of the Cabinet, Kuwait, 1 July 1961, CAB 131/26/D(61)44; C-in-C Persian Gulf to MOD, 1 July 1961, WO 32/20719.

32. Director of Operational Science and Research to HQ Command etc, 24 August 1961, WO 32/20721.

33. Defence Operations Staff, Tanganyika and Zanzibar situation. Report number 15, 20 January 1964, PREM 11/5136.

34. Defence Operations. East Africa sitrep. Report No. 21, 0600hrs, 25 January 1964, Ibid.

35. Defence Operations. East Africa sitrep. Report No. 22, 2000 hrs, 25 January 1964, Ibid.; Lt. Col. T. M. P. Stevens to British Land Forces Kenya, 9 February 1964, WO 276/368.

36. Report by Directors of Plans, 1 March 1956, DEFE 6/34/JP(56)24(Final); Cabinet Defence Committee, 6 meeting, 10 July 1956, CAB 131/17/DC(56).

37. Halford to Foreign Office, 2 & 3 August 1956, PREM 11/1148; Egypt Committee, 10 meeting, 3 August 1956, CAB 134/1216/EC(56).

38. JPS, Long Term Defence Policy, 11 January 1957; DEFE 6/40/JP(57)4(Final). JPS, Brief for PM's tour of the Far East, 24 December 1957, DEFE 6/44/JP(57)168(Final).

39. VCAS to CAS et al, 19 July 1956, AIR [Air Ministry Archives, The National Archives, Kew, London] 2/14574; Memorandum by the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations, The proposal to construct an airfield on Gan, 16 July 1956, CAB 131/17/DC(56)20; JPS, Brief for PM's tour of the Far East, 24 December 1957, DEFE 6/44/JP(57)168(Final); Air movement of the Strategic Reserve through the Middle East and Africa, January 1958, AIR 2/14574.

40. Minutes of a meeting held on 10 December 1957 to discuss logistic support for the Transport Forces overseas, AIR 2/14574.

41. JPS, Strategic facilities in British territories likely to achieve independence, 27 August 1957, DEFE 6/42/JP(57)94(Final).

42. F. Cooper to Director of Air Plans, 22 January 1959, AIR 2/14973.

43. JPS, Comparative assessment of the Westabout and Eastabout routes, 18 October 1962, DEFE 6/80/JP(62)109(Final).

44. VCAS to Air Ministry, 29 July 1958, AIR 2/14574.

45. Cabinet Defence Committee, 12 meeting, 14 July 1958, CAB 131/19/D(58); Foreign Office to British Ambassador Tel Aviv, 15 July 1958, PREM 11/2380.

46. Cabinet Conclusions, 17 July 1958 CAB 128/32/CC(58)60; Military Assistant to CIGS, Middle East crisis – 1958, nd, WO 216/930.

47. P. Catterall (ed.), The Macmillan Diaries. Volume 2: Prime Minister and After 1857–1966 (London, 2011), p. 136.

48. Note by the Secretary of the Cabinet, Kuwait, 1 July 1961, CAB 131/26/D(61)43; Operation Vantage, Report by the working party, 16 August 1961, WO 32/20721/COS(61) 271.

49. Note by the Secretary of the Cabinet, Kuwait, 1 July 1961, CAB 131/26/D(61)44; CDS to C-in-C Middle East, 1 July 1961, WO 32/20719; CDS to C-in-C Middle East to CDS, 30 June 1961, WO 32/20719; MOD to HQ NEAF, 1 July 1961, WO 32/20719; CDS to C-in-C Middle East, 2 July 1961, WO 32/20719; Note by the Secretary of the Cabinet, Kuwait, 3 July 1961, CAB 131/26/D(61)45.

50. Catterall, The Macmillan Diaries, p. 398.

51. CDS to C-in-C Middle East to CDS, 30 June 1961, WO 32/20719; MOD to HQ NEAF, 1 July 1961, WO 32/20719; CDS to C-in-C Middle East, 2 July 1961, WO 32/20719; Note by the Secretary of the Cabinet, Kuwait, 3 July 1961, CAB 131/26/D(61)45.

52. Fergusson to Sandys, 29 October 1958, DEFE 7/1685.

53. Chiefs of Staff, Long Term Defence Policy, 22 February 1957, DEFE 7/1685/COS(57)47.

54. S. Dockrill, “Retreat from the Continent? British motives for troop reductions in West Germany, 1955–1958,” Journal of Strategic Studies, 20(1997), 60; Note of talk between Mr Duncan Sandys, Minister of Defence and General Norstad, SACEUR, 11 February 1957, WO 32/16269; Chilver to Playfair, 26 March 1957, WO 216/911; Cabinet Conclusions, 28 March 1957, CAB 128/31/C(57)26.

55. Strength of British forces in Germany, 25 September 1958, CCC, DSND [Duncan Sandys MSS, Churchill College Cambridge) 6/37; Record of discussions at Hotel Tallyrand, Paris, on Monday 14 April 1958, between the Minister of Defence and the US Secretary of Defence, DEFE 13/90; Minister of Defence, Rundown of BAOR, 16 June 1959, CAB 131/21/D(59)18; Chancellor of the Exchequer to Macmillan, 10 July 1959, DEFE 7/1683; Cabinet Defence Committee, 24 June 1959, CAB 131/21/D(59)7; Sandys to Soames, 13 July 1959, DEFE 7/1683; Cabinet Defence Committee, 20 November 1959, CAB 131/21/D(59)11.

56. Minister of Defence, Future strength of BAOR, 17 November 1959, CAB 131/22/D(59)31.

57. Harvey to Locke, 5 September 1957, DEFE 7/2151.

58. Minutes of the CIGS's Conference with Army Commanders, 3 February 1948, WO 216/245.

59. DCIGS, The long term deployment plan, 26 January 1957, WO 163/634/AC/G(57)5.

60. Director of Infantry, Final report by the Director of Infantry on the examination of the 165,000 Army for the Standing Committee on Army Organisation, 12 June 1957, WO 32/17903/SCO/M(57)5; DCIGS, Royal Artillery organization, 11 August 1959, WO 163/653/ECAC/P(59)56; Minutes of the 660 meeting of the ECAC, 27 November 1959, WO 163/653/ECAC/M(59)20.

61. Focus on army strength as at 31 September 1958, WO 384/30; Focus on army strength as at 31March 1966, WO 384/60.

62. Deputy Chief of Staff, The Organisation of the Strategic Reserve, 7 January 1958, DEFE 13/86.

63. VCIGS, Future army commitments, 11 March 1958, WO 163/640/AC/P(58)17; Minutes of the 197 meeting of the Army Council, 17 March 1958, WO 163/635/AC/M(58)5; DCIGS, The long term army, 14 April 1958, WO 163/640/AC/P(58)19; Minutes of the 202 meeting of the Army Council, 29 July 1958, WO 163/635/AC/M(58)10; Soames to Sandys, 30 July 1958, DEFE 7/1685.

64. MOD, Statement on Defence, 5 February 1959, CAB 129/96/C(59)14.

65. VCIGS, Future army commitments, 11 March 1958, WO 163/640/AC/P(58)17; Minutes of the 197 meeting of the Army Council, 17 March 1958, WO 163/635/AC/M(58)5; DCIGS, The long term army, 14 April 1958, WO 163/640/AC/P(58)19; Minutes of the 202 meeting of the Army Council, 29 July 1958, WO 163/635/AC/M(58)10; Soames to Sandys, 30 July 1958, DEFE 7/1685.

66. Ball, “Macmillan and British Defence Policy,” pp. 83–84; R. Moore, “Where Her Majesty's weapons were,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 57 (2001), pp. 58–64; M. Jones, “Up the garden path? Britain's nuclear history in the Far East, 1954–62,” International History Review, 25(2003), pp. 306–333; D. Fenton, “Hiroshima over Hanoi: the atomic battlefield in SEATO contingency planning, 1955–1965,” in P. Dennis and J. Grey, eds., Victory or Defeat. Armies in the Aftermath of Conflict (Canberra, 2010), pp. 130–48; Defence policy in South East Asia. Minutes of a meeting held at 10 Downing Street, 15 July 1957, CAB 130/131/Gen 606/2 meeting; Sandys, The deployment of V-bombers with nuclear capability in the Far East, 4 February 1958, CAB 131/19/D(58)3.

67. Defence Operations. East Africa sitrep. Report No. 22, 2000 hrs, 25 January 1964, PREM 11/5136; Lt. Col. T. M. P. Stevens to British Land Forces Kenya, 9 February 1964, WO 276/368.

68. McLeod to Ward, 25 July 1958, DEFE 11/173.

69. Lt.-Gen. Sir R. Bower to Lt.-Gen. Sir W. Stratton, 19 August 1958, WO 216/918.

70. Chiefs of Staff, confidential annex to 65 meeting, 24 July 1958, DEFE 11/173/COS(58); Meeting of Minister of Defence with COS, 12 August 1958, DEFE 32/13/MOM/50.

71. Note by the Secretary of the Cabinet, Record of meeting on Middle East, 7 August 1958. CAB 131/20/D(58)42.

72. CDS to Chiefs of Staff, 7 August 1958, DEFE 11/173.

73. Exercise “Starlight One.” Report by HQ 3 Division and HQ 1 Guards Brigade Group, 16 August 1960, DEFE 42/4.

74. Director of Operational Science and Research to HQ Command etc, 24 August 1961, WO 32/20721; Director of Movements to Director of Operational Science and Research, 22 September 1961, WO 32/20721.

75. Army Operational Research Group, report No. 9/61. Survey of factors affecting the health and efficiency of troops in Operation Vantage, December 1961, WO 291/2242.

76. Operation Vantage—major lessons. Report by GOC MELF, 8 December 1961, WO 32/20721.

77. Maj. P. H. Brazier, “Increased efficiency in the strategic reserve,” British Army Review, No 14 (1962), pp. 52–57; Director of Operational Science and Research to HQ Command etc, 24 August 1961, WO 32/20721; C-in-C Persian Gulf to MOD, 1 July 1961, WO 32/20719; C-in-C Middle East to CDS, 4 July 1961, WO 32/20719; Operation Vantage—major lessons. Report by GOC MELF, 8 December 1961, WO 32/20721.

78. Military Assistant to CIGS, Middle East crisis – 1958, nd, WO 216/930; Foreign Secretary to FO, 18 July 1958, PREM 11/2380.

79. Cabinet Defence Cttee, 14 July 1958, CAB 131/19/D(58)12; Cabinet Conclusions, 15 July 1958, CAB 128/32/CC(58)57.

80. C. Watts, “Killing Kith and Kin: The viability of British Military intervention in Rhodesia, 1964 – 5,” Twentieth Century British History, vol. 16 (2005), pp. 382–415.

81. Defence Planning Staff, Operations in Central Africa, 19 June 1964, DEFE 32/17/DP.83/64(Final); DPS, The Kariba dam, 22 February 1965, DEFE 32/17DP.17/65(Final); M. D. Kandiah, ed., Rhodesian UDI (ICBH Witness Seminar Programme, 2001), p. 70.

82. P. Murphy, ”‘An intricate and distasteful subject': British Planning for the use of force against the European settlers of Central Africa, 1952–65,” English Historical Review, 121(2006), pp. 746–77.

83. Outline plan the deployment in Northern Rhodesia, 2 March 1961, DEFE 32/17/COS (61)76; Festing to Watkinson, 2 March 1961, DEFE 32/17.

84. Watkinson to Macmillan, 9 February 1961. Annex: Internal security reinforcement of Northern Rhodesia. Memorandum by the Ministry of Defence, DEFE 32/17; Reinforcement of Northern Rhodesia, 28 June 1961, DEFE 32/17/COS (61)210; JPS, Reinforcement of Northern Rhodesia, 23 June 1961, DEFE 6/71/JP(61)74(Final).

85. Cabinet Conclusions, 9 May 1963, CAB 128/37/CC(63)29; Cabinet Conclusions, 4 July 1963, CAB 128/37/CC(63)44; Cabinet Conclusions, 31 October 1963, CAB 128/38/CM(63)3; Secretary of State for Colonies, Force requirement in Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland, 24 June 1965, CAB 148/21/OPD(65)103.

86. Dockrill, “Retreat from the Continent?,” p. 59.

87. J. Tomlinson, “The decline of Empire and the economic ‘decline' of Britain,” Twentieth Century British History, vol. 14 (2003), pp. 213–17; Memorandum by the Official Committee, Defence Expenditure Studies, 21 June 1967, CAB 148/32/OPD(67)46.

88. Cabinet Conclusions, 23 September 1965, CAB 128/39/CC(65)49.

89. Memorandum by the Official Committee, Defence Expenditure Studies, 21 June 1967, CAB 148/32/OPD(67)46.

90. CDS to Healey, 11 February 1966, DEFE 32/17; Note by the Secretary, Rhodesia contingency planning, 22 June 1967, DEFE 32/11/COS(65)67.

91. Defence Programme. Minutes of meeting held 10 Downing Street, 30 May 1957, CAB 130/122/Gen 570/3 meeting.

92. For a percipient discussion underlining the fact that great Powers need plenty of money see K. Burk, Old World New World. The Story of Britain and America (London 2007).