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Articles

Between treaty and treason: Dutch collaboration with warlord Teuku Uma during the Aceh War, a case study on the collaboration with indigenous power-holders in colonial warfare

Pages 93-116 | Published online: 24 Jan 2012
 

Abstract

Recent counterinsurgency experiences in Iraq and Afghanistan have demonstrated that the local operating environment often is dominated by indigenous power-holders. As counterinsurgents seek to establish control over the local population, collaboration with these agents has become an essential aspect of contemporary counterinsurgency. Although the practice of constructing collaborative relationships with indigenous power-holders might be perceived as unconventional by today's counterinsurgents, the approach itself goes back to the colonial era in which modern counterinsurgency has its roots. This article explores the dynamics, benefits, and dangers of collaborative relationships with indigenous power-holders by analysing an infamous episode in Dutch colonial history, the case of the collaboration between Dutch colonial authorities and warlord Teuku Uma during the Aceh War (1873–1913). This relationship ended in disaster for the Dutch as Uma departed their side at the moment he had become their pivotal asset in the local political landscape. The article explains that the Dutch succeeded to co-opt Uma, but failed to control him as they lacked the will and means to do so. Furthermore this case study provides an insight in the way the Dutch colonial authorities dealt with the complex process of intelligence-gathering in a fragmented indigenous society.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his gratitude to Azarja Harmanny for his assistance in preparing this article, and to his colleagues for their insightful comments from which this article benefitted. An earlier version was presented at the 2010 CIHM conference ‘Insurgency and Counterinsurgency’. The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Dutch government or the Ministry of Defence.

Notes

 1. CitationKilcullen, ‘Three Pillars of Counterinsurgency’, 3.

 2. Acehnese names and titles are spelled as suggested by Anthony Reid in his work The Contest for North Sumatra. Teuku is a title for a male descendant of an ulèëbalang's (Acehnese feudal lord) family.

 3. See, for example, CitationHeadquarters, Department of the Army, Counterinsurgency FM 324, 1–21. CitationUK Army, Army Field Manual Volume 1 Part 10 Countering Insurgency, 1–6.

 4. See, for instance, CitationZeman, ‘Report from the Field, Tribalism and Terror’; CitationJohnson and Mason, ‘Refighting the Last War, Afghanistan and the Vietnam Template’.

 5. A theoretical exploration of the validity of the local power-holder collaboration hypothesis is included as part of my forthcoming doctoral dissertation.

 6. CitationGalula, Counterinsurgency Warfare, 9.

 7. The organizational culture of most Western military forces is such that conventional warfare is preferred over irregular warfare. This translates into a preference for large ‘kinetic’ operations. See also CitationKitzen, ‘Westerse Militaire Cultuur en Counter-Insurgency’.

 8. See, for instance, CitationRobinson, ‘Non-European Foundation of European Imperialism’; CitationMigdal, Strong Societies and Weak States; CitationZisk, Enforcing the Peace.

 9. CitationWesseling, ‘Colonial Wars’, 4.

10. Robinson, ‘Non-European Foundation of European Imperialism’.

11. CitationDe Moor, ‘Warmakers in the Archipelago’, 52.

12. CitationDe Moor, ‘Met Klewang en karabijn’, 205.

13. CitationHotz, Beknopt Geschiedkundig Overzicht van den Atjèh-oorlog, 5–6.

14. CitationHotz, Beknopt Geschiedkundig Overzicht van den Atjèh-oorlog, 88–9.

15. CitationCalwell, Small Wars, 45–6.

16. CitationReid, The Blood of the People, 4.

17. CitationReid, The Blood of the People, 4

18. CitationHarmanny, ‘Vertrouwbare berigten’, 62.

19. CitationKruijt, De Atjeh-Oorlog, 14.

20. Reid gives an estimated population of 300,000, while Van Langen (a civil administrator and resident of Aceh) gives an estimated pre-war size of not less than 500,000. See CitationReid, The Contest for North Sumatra, 2; van Langen, De Inrichting van het Atjehsche Staatsbestuur onder het Sultanaat, 2.

21. Reid, The Contest for North Sumatra, 108.

22. Van 't Veer, De Atjeh-oorlog, 98.

23. CitationHarmanny, ‘Een “voorbeeldloze tuchtiging”’, Mars et Historia, 22.

24. Van 't Veer, De Atjeh-oorlog, 141.

25. Heshusius, ‘Honder jaar geleden’, 13–14, 17.

26. The official task of the Korps Marechaussee encompassed patrolling within the line. In reality, however, the Marechaussee provided the Dutch government with a highly capable special forces, counter-guerrilla unit. See CitationStruijvenberg, Het Korps Marechaussee op Atjeh, 10–12. This, as well as the name Marechaussee, which implies a constabulary-type unit, is typical for the political reluctance towards offensive actions in Aceh that existed at that time.

27. CitationVan Langen, De Inrichting van het Atjehsche Staatsbestuur onder het Sultanaat, 9.

28. CitationVan 't Veer, De Atjeh-oorlog, 188–90.

29. CitationHarmanny, ‘Vertrouwbare berigten’, 92.

30. Van Teijn to Pijnacker Hordijk, 3 February 1890, quoted in CitationBeamer, ‘The Atjeh War’, 444.

31. Reid, The Contest for North Sumatra, 271.

32. Hotz, Beknopt Geschiedkundig Overzicht van den Atjèh-oorlog, 35–6.

33. CitationNationaal Archief (NA), Ministerie van Koloniën (MvK), 1850–1900, toegang 2.10.02. Inv. Nr. 6206, Geheim Verbaal 13 februari1892 D2, Indisch Depêche 31 december 1891 91/2, Pompe van Meerdervoort aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 18 december 1891.

34. NA, MvK, 6204, Geheim Verbaal oktober 1891 Kab R14, 51/1, Beschikking Pijnacker Hordijk aan Pompe van Meerdervoort, 20 augustus 1891.

35. NA, MvK, 6210, Geheim Verbaal 21 mei 1892 N7, Indisch Depêche 10 maart 1892 31/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 28 februari 1892, 1.

36. NA, MvK, 6210, Geheim Verbaal 21 mei 1892 N7, Indisch Depêche 10 maart 1892 31/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 28 februari 1892, 3.

37. NA, MvK, 6210, Geheim Verbaal 21 mei 1892 N7, Indisch Depêche 10 maart 1892 31/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 28 februari 1892, 15–20.

38. NA, MvK, 6210, Geheim Verbaal 21 mei 1892 N7, Indisch Depêche 10 maart 1892 31/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 28 februari 1892, 14.

39. NA, MvK, 6219, Geheim Verbaal 28 juni 1893 N8, Indisch Depêche 2 maart 1893 16/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 16 februari 1893.

40. NA, MvK, 6219, Geheim Verbaal 28 juni 1893 N8, Indisch Depêche 2 maart 1893 16/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 16 februari 1893, 7.

41. NA, MvK, 6219, Geheim Verbaal 28 juni 1893 N8, Indisch Depêche 2 maart 1893 16/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 16 februari 1893, 16, italics by author.

42. NA, MvK, 6210, Geheim Verbaal 21 mei 1892 N7, Indisch Depêche 31 maart 1892 36/1, IV Advies van de Raad van Nederlandsch Indïe, vergadering 18 maart 1892 & V Pijnacker Hordijk aan Deijkerhoff, 25 maart 1892.

43. See Snouck Hurgronje, ‘Verslag omtrent de religieus-politieke toestanden in Atjèh’, 50–1; CitationSnouck Hurgronje, De Atjèhers, 152.

44. Snouck Hurgronje, ‘Verslag omtrent de religieus-politieke toestanden in Atjèh’, 78–9, 95.

45. Snouck Hurgronje, ‘Verslag omtrent de religieus-politieke toestanden in Atjèh’, 95.

46. NA, MvK, 6219, Geheim Verbaal 28 juni 1893 N8, Indisch Depêche 2 maart 1893 16/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 16 februari 1893, 15–36.

47. NA, MvK, 6222, Geheim Verbaal 1893 Q14, Indisch Depêche 25 november 1893, Gouverneur Generaal aan Minister van Koloniën, 25 september 1893, see also Advies van de Raad van Nederlandsch Indïe, vergadering 8 september 1893. Although these reports are from September 1893, the political policy changed as of end January 1893. CitationSomer, De Korte Verklaring, 228.

48. NA, MvK, 6219, Geheim Verbaal 28 juni 1893 N8, Indisch Depêche 2 maart 1893 16/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 16 februari 1893.

49. NA, MvK, 6219, Geheim Verbaal 23 september 1893 B12, Indisch Depêche 17 augustus 1893 71/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 2 augustus 1893 621/K, 7.

50. NA, MvK, 6219, Geheim Verbaal 23 september 1893 B12, Indisch Depêche 17 augustus 1893 71/1, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 2 augustus 1893 621/K, 14.

51. See NA, MvK, 6219, Geheim Verbaal 23 september 1893 B12, Indisch Depêche 10 augustus 1893 70/1, III Telegram 201, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 8 augustus 1893 & IV Telegram Pijnacker Hordijk aan Deijkerhoff, 9 augustus 1893.

52. NA, MvK, 6219, Geheim Verbaal 23 september 1893 B12, Indisch Depêche 10 augustus 1893 70/1, III Telegram 241, Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 8 augustus 1893.

53. Typically in such a combined operation Uma's militia would do the fighting, while the Dutch would use their firepower to support him or occupy enemy positions which were taken by Uma's men. See NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 28 september 1893 87/1, I Deijkerhoff aan Legercommandant Pittius, 30 augustus 1893, 4,9,11.

54. NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 24 augustus 1893 77/2, I Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 16 augustus 1893.

55. NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 24 augustus 1893 77/2, I Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 16 augustus 1893, 25.

56. NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 4 september 1893 79/1, IIIe Telegram Pijnacker Hordijk aan Deijkerhoff, 25 augustus 1893.

57. NA, MvK, 6222, Geheim Verbaal 1893 Q14, Indisch Depêche 25 november 1893, Gouverneur Generaal aan Minister van Koloniën, 25 september 1893, italics by author. See also NA, MvK, 6222, Geheim Verbaal 1893 Q14, Indisch Depêche 25 november 1893, Advies van de Raad van Nederlandsch Indïe, vergadering 8 september 1893 & NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 4 september 1893 79/1, IIIa Telegram Pijnacker Hordijk aan Deijkerhoff, 5 september 1893.

58. NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 26 oktober 1893 95/1, III Missive Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 11 oktober 1893, 11.

59. CitationKruisheer, Atjeh 1896, 2.

60. See NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 12 oktober 1893 93/1, IV Missive Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 23 september 1893 & NA, MvK, 6225, Geheim Verbaal 12 april 1894 X14, Indisch Depêche 8 maart 1894 108/1, Deijkerhoff aan Van der Wijck, 19 december 1893.

61. In reality the decline of the very harsh Acehnese feudal system had already begun. Although still the legitimate rulers, the bond between ulèëbalangs and their subjects was not as tight as the Dutch assumed. Both the staff in Aceh as well as Snouck Hurgronje failed to observe this ongoing process of fragmentation. See Reid, The Blood of the People; van 't Veer, De Atjeh-oorlog.

62. NA, MvK, 6224, Geheim Verbaal 5 februari 1894 W1, Indisch Depêche 9 november 1893 98/1,VII Missive Deijkerhoff aan Van der Wijck, 27 oktober 1893, 11.

63. NA, MvK, 6225, Geheim Verbaal 12 april 1894 X14, Indisch Depêche 8 maart 1894 108/1, Deijkerhoff aan Van der Wijck, 19 december 1893.

64. CitationNieuwenhuijzen, De Toekoe Oemar-Politiek, 103. Although published anonymously, this book was later attributed to Nieuwenhuijzen. See van 't Veer, De Atjeh-oorlog, 200. Writing style, arguments, and access to data indeed are similar to Nieuwenhuijzen's series of articles also published in 1897 under the title ‘De politiek van de oorlog in Atjeh’ in the magazine Indisch Militair Tijdschrift.

65. NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 28 september 1893 87/1, IV Missive Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 14 september, 11–13.

66. See CitationGobée and Adriaanse, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatiën Kleine Serie, 33, 138–51 and NA, MvK, 6225, Geheim Verbaal 12 april 1894 S5, Indisch Depêche 8 maart 1894 16/1Brief van Snouck Hurgronje. Although this last source lacks a date and address, it is a reaction to Deykerhoff's 19 December 1894 letter to Van Wijck. This letter is not included in the Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatiën Kleine Serie, 33.

67. Gobée and Adriaanse, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatiën Kleine Serie, 33, 143–4.

68. Gobée and Adriaanse, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatiën Kleine Serie, 33, 152.

69. NA, MvK, 6225, Geheim Verbaal 12 april 1894 S5, Indisch Depêche 8 maart 1894 16/I, Besluit van de Gouverneur Generaal, 8 maart 1894, 26.

70. NA, MvK, 6225, Geheim Verbaal 12 april 1894 S5, Indisch Depêche 8 maart 1894 16/I, Advies van de Raad van Indië, uitgebracht in de vergadering 9 februari 1894, 25–30.

71. NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 14 september 1893 82/1, III Missive Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 29 augustus 1893.

72. Reid, The Contest for North Sumatra, 274.

73. NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 28 september 1893 87/1, IV Missive Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 14 september 1893, 14–15.

74. NA, MvK, 6224, Geheim Verbaal 5 februari 1894 W1, Indisch Depêche 13 november 1893 99/1,I Extract journaal van de Gouverneur van Atjeh etc., 10 t/m 22 oktober 193, 24 oktober 1893, 4–5.

75. NA, MvK, 6239, Geheim Verbaal 8 augustus 1896 N14, Indisch Depêche 25 maart 1896, 24/1 Deijkerhoff aan Van der Wijck, 11 december 1896.

76. NA, MvK, 6223, Geheim Verbaal 30 november 1893 X14, Indisch Depêche 26 oktober 1893 95/1,Missive Deijkerhoff aan Pijnacker Hordijk, 11 oktober 1893, 9.

77. NA, MvK, 6224, Geheim Verbaal 5 februari 1894 W1, Indisch Depêche 14 december 1893 110/1 III, Missive Deijkerhoff aan Van der Wijck,5 december 1893, 12.

78. Gobée and Adriaanse, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatiën Kleine Serie, 33, 172–4.

79. Gobée and Adriaanse, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatiën Kleine Serie, 33, 176–8.

80. See, for instance, NA, MvK, 6234, Geheim Verbaal 8 augustus 1895 L12, Indisch Depêche 7 maart 1895 22/1, Deijkerhoff aan Van der Wijck, 6 februari 1896 and NA, MvK, 6236, Geheim Verbaal 29 januari 1896 R1, Indisch Depêche 9 januari 2/1, Van der Wijck en Deijkerhoff aan Bergsma, “Conferentie met generaal Deijkerhoff, Gouverneur van Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, op 27 december 1895, naar aanleiding van het rapport van den Legercommandant van 14 december 1895 LA Geheim.”

81. Gobée and Adriaanse, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatiën Kleine Serie, 33, 170.

82. NA, MvK, 6236, Geheim Verbaal 29 januari 1896 R1, Indisch Depêche 9 januari 2/1, Van der Wijck en Deijkerhoff aan Bergsma, “Conferentie met generaal Deijkerhoff, Gouverneur van Atjeh en Onderhoorigheden, op 27 december 1895, naar aanleiding van het rapport van den Legercommandant van 14 december 1895 LA Geheim.”

83. CitationHeshusius, ‘Honder jaar geleden’, 37–8.

84. NA, MvK, 6234, Geheim Verbaal 18 september 1895 B14, Bergsma aan Van der Wijck, 26 juli 1895.

85. NA, MvK, 6231, Geheim Verbaal 16 februari 1895 U2, Indisch Depêche 10 oktober 1894 99/1, Missive Deijkerhoff aan Van der Wijck, 22 juli 1894, 28.

86. Nieuwenhuijzen, De Toekoe Oemar-Politiek, 108–9.

87. NA, MvK, 6227, Indisch Depêche 21 mei 1894 41/1, Besluit Van der Wijck, 19 mei18 94.

88. NA, MvK, 6234, Geheim Verbaal 23 april 1896 Z5, Indisch Depêche 6 januari 1896 1/1, Deijkerhoff aan Van der Wijck, 21 december 1895.

89. See Kruisheer, Atjeh 1896, 25; Reid, The Contest for North Sumatra, 274.

90. Kruisheer, Atjeh 1896, 11.

91. NA, MvK, 6239, Geheim Verbaal 8 augustus 1896 N14, Indisch Depêche 2 april 1896 27/2, Deijkerhoff aan Legercommandant Vetter, dd 14 maart 96.

92. See NA, MvK, 6238, Geheim Verbaal C8/30, Missive Van der Wijck aan Bergsma, 12 april 1896; Kruisheer, Atjeh 1896, 23–4.

93. NA, MvK, 6239, Geheim Verbaal 8 augustus 1896 N14, Indisch Depêche 2 april 1896 27/2, telegrammen Deijkerhoff aan Van der Wijck, 29 en 30 maart 1896.

94. See NA, MvK, 6239, Geheim Verbaal 8 augustus 1896 N14, Indisch Depêche 22 april 1896 37/2 & Indisch Depêche 11 mei 1896 42/1, Brieven van Toekoe Oemar/Djohan 12,15&25 april; Kruisheer, Atjeh 1896, 315–26.

95. NA, MvK, 6239, Geheim Verbaal 8 augustus 1896 N14, Indisch Depêche 18 mei 1896 45/1, Vetter aan Van der Wijck, 9 mei 1896.

96. NA, MvK, 6239, Geheim Verbaal 8 augustus 1896 N14, Indisch Depêche 11 mei 1896 42/1, Proclamatie Vetter, 27 april 1896.

97. Van 't Veer, De Atjeh-oorlog, 238–9.

98. CitationDolk, Atjeh, 44–5, 181–3.

99. CitationDolk, Atjeh, 45.

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