Conflicting worldviews, mutual incomprehension: The production of intelligence across Whitehall and the management of subversion during decolonisation, 1944–1966

Abstract

Writing on British intelligence has tended to concentrate on the collection machinery in specific local contexts, the development of the Joint Intelligence Committee and the use of intelligence product by government. The emphasis has been on the optimisation of the intelligence bureaucracy in the face of Colonial Office intransigence. What this analysis largely leaves out, however, is a description of the culture and practices of the Colonial Office as it attempted to work with various colonial governments. Instead there is a tendency to overemphasise the rational nature of the bureaucratic changes in Whitehall and the contribution of MI5 and MI6 in the maintenance of security in the colonies. This article seeks to address these oversights by examining the divisions between the Colonial Office and the rest of the Whitehall intelligence machinery and show how counter-subversion remained a challenge to administrators both before and after the emergence of the Joint Intelligence Committee system.

Keywords::

• intelligence
• Colonial Office
• organisational change

Notes

^1.Walton, Empire of Secrets, xxi–xxxi; Andrew, The Defence of the Realm; Jeffries, MI6.

^2.Cormac, Confronting the Colonies, 56–9.

^3.Davies, Intelligence and Government, Vol. 2.

^4.Cormac, Confronting the Colonies, 11–12.

^5.Bayly, Empire and Information; Muldoon, ‘Politics, Intelligence and Elections’; Satia, Spies in Arabia, 1–17. Berridge, ‘Sudan's Security Agencies’; Kirk-Greene, On Crown Service, 39–60; Novo, ‘Friend or Foe?’, 418–19. In particular, see quote from Templer from TNA (The National Archives) CAB (Cabinet Papers) 21/2952 Report on Colonial Security by Sir Gerald Templer 23 April 1955, 52.

^6.Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency; French, The British Way in Counter Insurgency; Charters, The British Army and Jewish Insurgency. Charters, ‘Counter-insurgency Intelligence’; Mockaitis, ‘Low Intensity Conflict’; Smith ‘A Tradition that Never Was’; French, Liberty or Death.

^7.Thomas, Empires of Intelligence, 1–8.

^8.Murphy, ‘Creating a Commonwealth Intelligence Culture’.

^9.Ban Kah Choon, Absent History; Comber, Malaya'sSecret Police.

^10.Davis, ‘Intelligence Analysts and Policymakers’; Freedman, ‘The Politics of Warning’; Handel, ‘Intelligence and the Problem of Strategic Surprise’; Hulnick, ‘What's Wrong with the Intelligence Cycle’; Rolington, ‘Objective Intelligence or Plausible Denial’.

^11. Novo, ‘Friend or Foe?’ Ibid., 1–2, 9–15.

^12.Herman, Intelligence Power in Peace and War.

^13.Jones, Britain and the Yemen Civil War, 32–5.

^14. Davies, Intelligence and Government, Vol.2., 82, 84, 121, 146, 148–9, 154, 168–71, 173, 175, 187.

^15.Cormac, Confronting the Colonies, 57–9.

^16.Macoun, Wrong Place, Right Time, 13–37. Ban Kah Choon, Absent History, 156, 210; Popplewell, Intelligence and Imperial Defence, 311–16; TNA CO537/1323 Security Arrangements 1945–46; TNA CO537/1922 Africa: Internal security cooperation of civil and military officers 1946–47; TNA CO537/1324 Security Arrangements: Far East 1944–46; TNA CO537/1329 Jamaica: Security Arrangements 1945–48; TNA CO537/1330 Security Arrangements: Jamaica enemy aliens 1944–46; TNA CO537/2690 Security Arrangements Jamaica Communist Activities, 1948 provide information about the roles of DSO in particular colonies.

^17.Thomas, Empires of Intelligence, 1–8.

^18.Comber, Malaya's Secret Police, 25–51. Aldrich, Hidden Hand, 496.

^19. TNA CO1035/51 Organisation of Intelligence Services in the Colonies: Caribbean Area 1954–56, Circular 458/56 28 April 1956, Organisation of Intelligence in the Colonies.

^20. TNA, CO537/5857 Outrages CID Reports Palestine 1948.

^21. TNA CO1035/43 Organisation of Intelligence Services in the Colonies: Jamaica 1954–56, Minute by I. Watson, CO, 17 August 1956.

^22. TNA CO1035/43 Organisation of Intelligence Services in the Colonies: Jamaica 1954–56, Minute to Mr P. Rogers CO, from I. Watson, CO, 14 August 1956.

^23. Comber, Malaya's Secret Police, 25–51.

^24. TNA CO537/4317 Communism in the Colonies: East Africa 1949, Minute to Mr Blackburne, Information Services, CO, from Juxon Barton, CO, 4 January 1950.

^25.Hinsley and Simkins, British Intelligence in the Second World War, Vol. 4, 8.

^26. TNA CO537/5439 Review of Colonial Police and Security: Co-ordination of Police Adviser's Reports, Report by Ministers to Secretary of State, 1949–50, Note of a meeting held by of State for Colonies on Colonial Police Forces, Friday 13 January 1950. TNA CO537/5439 Review of Colonial Police and Security Forces Co-ordination of Police Advisers Reports, Report by Ministers to Secretary of State 1949–50, Note of a meeting held by Secretary of State on Colonial police forces, Friday 13 January 1950, para 7–8.

^27. TNA CO537/3824 West Indies: Monthly Intelligence Reports 1948, Letter A.B. Cohen, CO, to African Governors, 15 March 1948.

^28.Cormac, Confronting the Colonies, 218–21.

^29.Aldrich, Hidden Hand, 500; P.H.J. Davies, Intelligence and Government, 146.

^30. FO110/5 Colonial Office Circular Despatch ‘Publicity Policy in Regard to Communism’, 2 April 1948; Defty, Britain, America and Anti-Communist Propaganda, 83.

^31. Novo, ‘Friend or Foe?’, 417–19, quotes Templer Report on the government of Cyprus’ priorities and Armitage's attitude to Templer's ideas.

^32. Andrew, Defence of the Realm, 114–35, 219–21.

^33.Ban Kah Choon, Absent History, 63–116.

^34. TNA CO537/2676 Note of a Meeting Held in the Secretary of State's Room 18 October 1948; Note of a Meeting Held in the Sir Thomas Lloyd's Room, 2 November 1948.

^35. TNA CO967/38 Memoranda and Minutes of Meetings to Discuss Political Intelligence Reporting by Colonial Governments and Combating Communism in the Colonies 1949 Note of a Meeting held on the 18^th October 1948 by the Secretary of State for Colonies, Minister of State, and Parliamentary Undersecretary of State and CO officials, Para 1(2) para. 2; TNA CO96738/Minute ‘Political Intelligence Services’ to Sir Thomas Lloyd from Sir Charles Jeffries, 22 October 1948.

^36. TNA CO967/38 Memoranda and Minutes of Meetings to Discuss Political Intelligence Reporting by Colonial Governments and Combating Communism in the Colonies 1949 Note of a Meeting held on the 2^nd of November 1948 by Sir Thomas Lloyd, PUS CO, Sir Charles Jeffries, DUS CO. and CO officials to discuss a political intelligence section.

^37. TNA CO967/44 Proposals for a Political Intelligence Section 1949, Minute to Sir Thomas Lloyd, Permanent Under Secretary, CO, from P. Rogers, Establishment Department, CO, February 1949; TNA CO537/2676 Political Intelligence from the Colonies: Organisation for Research Into, 1948, Minute P. Rogers, Establishment Department, CO, 24 November 1948.

^38. TNA, CO537/2686 Political Intelligence Reports: East Africa 1948, Letter to African Governors from A.B. Cohen, African Department15 March 1948, para. 5 although some suggested headings were included.

^39. TNA CO537/3677 Colonial Political Intelligence Summaries 1948. Minute to Mr Seel, CO, from Trafford Smith, CO, 18 November 1948; Minute from Mr Seel, CO, 20 November 1948.

^40. TNA, CO537/2686 Political Intelligence Reports: East Africa 1948. Minute to Sir Thomas Lloyd PUS, CO, and Mr Rees Williams from A.B. Cohen 15 March 1948; Letter to African Governors from A.B. Cohen, African Department15 March 1948.

^41. Defty, Britain, America, and Anti-Communist Propaganda, 83. TNA CO537/2687 Security Arrangements: West Indies 1948, Minute I Kennedy 5 February 1948 describing a meeting on 26 January 1948 between Courtenay Young, MI5, and Kennedy, Beckett, Sir Marston Logan of the CO. Mr Smallman, CO, was appointed to liaise with MI5. Aim was to provide general material to allow MI5 to build up a background picture of political events in the colonies.

^42. TNA CO967/38 Memoranda and Minutes of Meetings to Discuss Political Intelligence Reporting by Colonial Governments and Combating Communism in the Colonies 1949, Note of a Meeting held on the 18^th October 1948 by the Secretary of State for Colonies, Minister of State, and Parliamentary Undersecretary of State and CO officials, para 3.

^43. TNA CO968/727 Organisation of Intelligence Services in the Colonies 1945–51, A Creech Jones, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to Colonial Governors 5 and 20 August 1948. At this point there were no recommendations about coordinating machinery although LICs were being formed in the Far East TNA CO537/4321 Security Arrangements in the Far East Local Joint Intelligence Committees 1948 (see also Davies, Intelligence and Government, Vol. 2, 148, 155.

^44. TNA, CO1035/96, Reports of the Security Intelligence Adviser: Mr MacDonald's Report on Nigeria 1956, 1–2. Unfortunately the letter itself does not seem to have survived.

^45. TNA CO822/445 The Organisation of Intelligence Services in Kenya 1952, Telegram Sir Thomas Lloyd, PUS CO, to Sir Evelyn Baring, Governor Kenya, 15 November 1952.

^46. TNA, CAB 21/2952 Report on Colonial Security by Sir Gerald Templer Parts 1 and 2, 23 April 1955.

^47.Cormac, ‘Organising Intelligence’.

^48. TNA, CAB 21/2922 Internal Security in the Colonies (Communist Activities) 1955, JIC (49)82 Final 20 October 1949, Comments on a despatch by Sir Henry Gurney, High Commissioner, Federation of Malaya 4c; Ibid, Minutes JIC 490 76^th Meeting Minute 6(3).

^49. Davies, Intelligence and Government, Vol. 2, 15–16.

^50.Sinclair, At the End of the Line, 193–4.

^51.Thurston, Sources for Colonial Studies in the Public Record Office, Vol. 1.

^52. TNA CO1035/96 Organisation of Intelligence in the Colonies: Nigeria 1956.

^53. French The British Way in Counter Insurgency, 228.

^54.Cormac, ‘Whitehall “Showdown”?’, 259.

^55. TNA, CO1035/118 General Review of Security in the Colonial Empire 1956, Minute CJJT Barton, CO, to CY Carstairs, AUS, CO, 16 October 1956.

^56.Cormac, ‘Whitehall “Showdown”?’, 261–3.

^57.Cormac, Confronting the Colonies, 94–7.

^58. TNA CO1035/28 Organisation of Intelligence in the Colonies: Central Africa 1954–56 Circular No 458/56 28 April 1956 f.1; TNA, CO1037/28, Policing of Rural Areas in Northern Rhodesia, 1954–56, Editorial Central African Post, 27 June 1956. This editorial is particularly scathing and attributes the decision to hostility between police and Provincial Administration; Ibid. Appendix A Extracts from Sir Herbert Dowbiggin's Report on the Northern Rhodesia Police, 1938; TNA, CO1015/370, Proposal for the Unification of the Police Services of Central Africa, 1952; J.R.T. Wood, The Weensy Papers, 176–7, 257–8, 325–7. TNA, CO1035/87, Minute from J.C. Morgan, CO, to N.D. Watson, CO through J.C. Barton, 7 April 1956. Refers to Minutes of the Conference of Police Commissioners in December 1955 –Memorandum by Sir Arthur Benson Native Authorities and the General Political System, August, 1956; CO1035/87, Minute Mr W. Gorell Barnes, CO, to Mr N.D. Watson, CO, 14 August 1956. Benson perceived Native Authorities to be a bulwark against nationalism.

^59. TNA CO1035/149 Review of Local Intelligence and ways to improve it: application to JIC 1963–65, ISD 55/010 Circular 64/60 Periodical Reviews of State of Local Intelligence, 22 January 1960. In 1963 the JIC adopted this procedure and requested that other departments contribute JIC (63)63 (Revised Terms of Reference), 19 July 1963. Cabinet Joint Intelligence Committee The State of Our intelligence Note by the Secretary Circular 980/61. Circular 60/65 referred to the need for a review at 12-monthly intervals of the local state of intelligence coverage. Circular 169/65 Periodical Reviews of the State of Local Intelligence 14 April 1965. Circular 248/65 15th June 1965 Periodical Review of the State of Local Intelligence.

^60. Within the Cabinet Office a series of committees were also created to coordinate the British machinery. Davies, Intelligence and Government, Vol. 2, 168–9. Cormac, Confronting the Colonies, 5–8.

^61.Jones, ‘Where the State Feared to Tread’, 719–24.

^62. TNA CO1035/116–127 1956, Official Committee on Counter Subversion in the Colonies (various files).

^63. TNA PREM11/1582 Minute to Anthony Eden, PM, from Sir Norman Brook, Cabinet Secretary, 28 November 1955, para. 2.

^64.Oakman, ‘The Politics of Foreign Aid’; Oakman, A History of the Colombo Plan, 13, 18, 35–72; Waters, ‘A Failure of Imagination’, 348–9, 351–7.

^65. TNA CO1035/122 Activities of the Counter Subversion Organisation of Malaya, 1956. TNA CO1035/123 Activities of the Counter Subversion Organisation of Singapore, 1956.

^66.Aldrich, Hidden Hand, 516–18. This may become more open to investigation once the 1.2 million documents help as part of the Hanslope Park Archives are made available in 2018. See, ‘Academics Consider Legal Action to Force Foreign Office to Release Public Records’, The Guardian, 13 January 2014.

^67.Tijani, ‘Britain and the Foundation of Anti Communist Policies in Nigeria’, 47–60.

^68.Rabe. US Intervention in British Guiana.