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Abstract
Terms like ‘support’ and ‘collaboration’ are often used interchangeably to denote a loose set of acts or attitudes that benefit non-state armed groups (NSAGs). However, these terms are seldom defined, and the alternatives available to civilians are rarely identified. Moreover, existing approaches overlook that the interaction between civilians and NSAGs is often one between ruler and ruled, which makes obedience and resistance central. This paper proposes to conceptualize the choices available to civilians as forms of cooperation and non-cooperation, offers a typology, and discusses the implications for theory building on civilian and NSAG behavior, and on the functioning of armed social orders.
Notes
1. Mao, On Guerrilla Warfare; and Guevara, Loveman, and Davies, Guerrilla Warfare.
2. Trinquier, Modern Warfare.
3. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence; and Wood, Insurgent Collective Action.
4. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence; and Weinstein, Inside Rebellion.
5. Cohen, “Explaining Rape”; and Weinstein, Inside Rebellion.
6. Arjona, Rebelocracy; Arjona, Kasfir, and Mampilly, Rebel Governance; and Mampilly, Rebel Rulers.
7. Galula, Counterinsurgency Warfare; Packwood, “Popular Support”; Petraeus et al., The US Army; and Trinquier, Modern Warfare.
8. Beath, Christia, and Enikolopov, “Winning Hearts and Minds”; Downes, Targeting Civilians in War; Lyall and Wilson, “Rage against the Machines”; Lyall, “Does Indiscriminate Violence Incite”; and Lyall, “Are Coethnics More Effective.”
9. Sanderson, “Transnational Terror and Organized.”
10. E.g. Arias, Drugs and Democracy in Rio; Wolff, “Building Criminal Authority”; Davis, “Irregular Armed Forces”; Cockayne, Hidden Power; Florez and Boyce, “Colombian Organized Crime”; Rodgers, “Living in the Shadow.”
11. Jones and Rodgers, “The World Bank’s”; Jütersonke, Muggah, and Rodgers, “Gangs, Urban Violence”; Olson, Shirk, and Selee, Shared Responsibility; and Oosterbaan and van Wijk, “Pacifying and Integrating.”
12. For a discussion of attitudinal vs. behavioral approaches to support, see Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence.
13. Arjona, “Social Order”; Barter, Civilian Strategy; and Barter, “Unarmed Forces.”
14. For a typology of order and disorder in conflict zones, see Arjona, “Wartime Institutions”.
15. Arjona, “Wartime Institutions ”; Arjona, Rebelocracy; Arjona, Kasfir, and Mampilly, Rebel Governance; Mampilly, Rebel Rulers; Metelits, Inside Insurgency; Weinstein, Inside Rebellion; Kasfir, “The Creation of Civil”; and Wickham-Crowley, “The Rise.”
16. Gambetta, The Sicilian Mafia; Varese, The Russian Mafia; Schelling, “What Is the Business”; Jamieson, “Italy’s Criminal Gangs”; Skarbek, “Governance and Prison Gangs”; Lilyblad, “Illicit Authority”; Arias, Drugs and Democracy in Rio; Wolff, “Building Criminal Authority”; Davis, “Non-State Armed Actors”; and Arias and Barnes, “Crime and Plural Orders.”
17. Arjona, “Civilian Resistance.”
18. Gerring, “What Makes a Concept,” 364.
19. Arjona, “Social Order.”
20. Differentiating civilians and combatants in contexts of civil war is plagued with problems, some of which may apply to localities controlled by organized criminal groups. For a lengthy discussion, see Kinsella, The Image Before.
21. Bowles and Gintis, “Social Capital And Community,” 420.
22. Arjona, “Social Order”; and Barter, “Unarmed Forces.”
23. To my knowledge, there are no conceptualizations of civilian support for criminal groups. Hence, this section focuses on civilian support for armed actors in contexts of civil war.
24. Wickham-Crowley, Guerrillas and Revolution; Petersen, Resistance and Rebellion; and Wood, Insurgent Collective Action.
25. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence.
26. Barter, “Unarmed Forces”; and Barter, Civilian Strategy.
27. Masullo, “Civilian Noncooperation.”
28. Humphreys and Weinstein, “Who Fights”; Viterna, Women in War; Tezcür, “Ordinary People, Extraordinary Risks”; Arjona and Kalyvas, “Recruitment into Armed Groups”; and Shesterinina, “Collective Threat Framing.”
29. Parkinson, “Organizing Rebellion.”
30. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence.
31. De Souza, “Metropolitan Deconcentration.”
32. Arjona, Rebelocracy; and De Souza, “Metropolitan Deconcentration.”
33. Arjona, Rebelocracy; De Souza, “Metropolitan Deconcentration”; and Arias and Barnes, “Crime and Plural Orders.”
34. Arjona, “Wartime Institutions.”
35. On groups fighting in civil wars see Arjona, Kasfir, and Mampilly, Rebel Governance; Mampilly, Rebel Rulers; Metelits, Inside Insurgency; Weinstein, Inside Rebellion; Kasfir, “The Creation of Civil”; Wickham-Crowley, “The Rise”; Arjona, Rebelocracy. On criminal groups see Gambetta, The Sicilian Mafia; Varese, The Russian Mafia; Skarbek, “Governance and Prison Gangs”; Lilyblad, “Illicit Authority”; Arias, Drugs and Democracy in Rio; Wolff, “Building Criminal Authority”; Grillo, El Narco; Cockayne, Hidden Power; Davis, “Non-State Armed Actors”; Arias and Barnes, “Crime and Plural Orders”; Gutiérrez-Sanín, “Organization and Governance”; and Harbers, Jaffe, and Cummings, “A battle for hearts.”
36. Arjona, Rebelocracy; Förster, “Dialogue Direct;” Arias, Drugs and Democracy in Rio; Arjona, Rebelocracy; Harbers, Jaffe, and Cummings, “A battle for hearts”; Mampilly, Rebel Governance; and Rodgers, “Living in the Shadow.”
37. Wood, Insurgent Collective Action.
38. Arjona, Rebelocracy; and Mampilly, Rebel Rulers.
39. Arjona, “Civilian Resistance.”
40. Scott, Weapons of the Weak.
41. Vlassenroot and Raeymaekers, “The Politics of Rebellion”; Uribe de Hincapié, “Notas Preliminares”; Lubkemann, Culture in Chaos; Raeymaekers and Menkhaus, “State and Non-State Regulation”; CNRR, “El Orden Desarmado”; Mampilly, Rebel Rulers; Förster, “Dialogue Direct”; Kaplan, “Nudging Armed Groups”; Barter, Civilian Strategy; Masullo, “Civilian Noncooperation”; and Mouly, Idler, and Garrido, “Zones of Peace.”
42. Osorio, Schubiger, and Weintraub, “Vigilante Mobilization”; and Moncada, “Resisting Protection.”
43. Arjona, “Social Order”; and Barter, Civilian Strategy.
44. This typology builds on Arjona, “Social Order.”
45. Wood, Insurgent Collective Action.
46. Petersen, Resistance and Rebellion.
47. Wickham-Crowley, Guerrillas and Revolution.
48. Barter, Civilian Strategy in Civil War; Ibid.
49. Ibid.; Arjona, “Civilian Resistance”; Mouly, Idler, and Garrido, “Zones of Peace”; and Kaplan, “Protecting Civilians”; and Masullo, “Civilian Noncooperation.”
50. Masullo, “Civilian Noncooperation.”
51. Arjona, “Civilian Resistance.”
52. Ibid.; and Masullo, “Civilian Noncooperation.”
53. Masullo, “Civilian Noncooperation.”
54. See also Barter, Civilian Strategy in Civil War.
55. Becker, “Crime and Punishment”; and Bentham, The Rationale of Punishment.
56. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence.
57. Wood, Insurgent Collective Action.
58. For example Peñaranda, “Resistencia Civil”; Sandoval Forero, La Guardia Indígena Nasa; and Rappaport, “Civil Society.” See Arjona, Rebelocracy, for a list of other sources on Colombia.
59. Alther, “Colombian Peace Communities”; Paul and Demarest, The Operation; and Kaplan, “Protecting Civilians.”
60. Elster, Ulysses Unbound, 271.
61. Elster, “A Plea for Mechanisms.”
62. LeDoux, The Emotional Brain, 134.
63. See for example Torres-Rivas, “Epilogue”; Lechner, Los Patios; Lira, “Psicología del Miedo”; Pécaut, From the Banality; Koonings and Kruijt, Societies of Fear; and Theidon, Entre Prójimos.
64. For a discussion of symbolic violence, see Duran-Martinez, “To Kill and Tell.”
65. Hollister, Government and the Arts, 39.
66. Arjona, Rebelocracy.
67. Wood, Insurgent Collective Action.
68. Arjona and Kalyvas, “Recruitment into Armed Groups”; and Uribe de Hincapié, “Notas Preliminares.”
69. Petersen, Resistance and Rebellion.
70. Wood, Insurgent Collective Action.
71. E.g. Taussig, Law in a Lawless; Kalyvas, “Rebel Governance During”; Sinno, Organizations at War; and Arjona, Rebelocracy.
72. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, 93.
73. Ball, “Authority and Conceptual Change.”
74. Weldon, The Vocabulary of Politics.
75. Saltzman, “The Role of the Obedience Experiments.”
76. On NSAGs’ regulation of free speech see Arjona, Rebelocracy; and Arjona, “Wartime Institutions.”
77. Grillo, El Narco.
78. Festinger, Extending Psychological Frontiers.
79. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism.
80. Mampilly, “Performing the Nation-state.”
81. See for example, Miller, The Obedience Experiments; Saltzman, “The Role of”; Hamilton et al., “Why People Obey”; Hollister, Government and the Arts; Milgram, “Behavioral Study of Obedience.” Hendel, “An Exploration;” and Martin et al., “Obedience under Conditions.”
82. Milgram, Obedience to Authority, 145.
83. Weldon, The Vocabulary of Politics.
84. Hollister, Government and the Arts.
85. Elster, Sour Grapes.
86. Miller, The Obedience Experiments, 223.
87. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism.
88. Arjona, “Civilian Resistance”; and Arjona, Rebelocracy.