War within a war: Labour Corps and local response in Chin Hills during the First World War

ABSTRACT

The paper examines local response to the recruitment of Labour Corps in the Chin Hills during the First World War. It probes the tenability of colonial binary of dividing the local population into ‘loyal’ and ‘rebel’ groups. It argues that the so-called ‘loyal’ Zo (Chin) were rather coerced to join the Labour Corps through the influence of the Ukpi. On the other hand, those who resisted colonial wartime policy were not ‘rebel’ but warriors who fought a war within a war in order to free themselves from colonial bondage, albeit it was confined to a particular area.

KEYWORDS:

• First World War
• Labour Corps
• Zo (Chin)
• uprising
• Indo-Burma frontier

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. Assam State Archive (ASA), Secretariat Administration (Record and Library) Department, “Recruiting in India before and during the War of 1914–18.”

2. Ibid., Appendix XXII, Statement showing the locations of all depots for Non-Combatants on the 11 November 1918, and reasons for the selection of such locations, 90.

3. Series of volumes on Anglo-Kuki War has been published, see, Guite and Haokip ed., The Anglo-Kuki War; Kipgen and Haokip ed., Against the Empire; and Haokip and Pau ed., Forgotten Fighters (forthcoming).

4. For discussion on disarmament, see, Pau, “Disarmament and resistance.”

5. Ukpi implies the title of a paramount Sukte chief at Tedim who ruled over numbers of villages whereas ‘Council of elders” refers to a democratic form of administration found in Falam area. Refer to Pau, Indo-Burma Frontier.

6. India Office Library and Record, (IOL&R), Minute paper no. 2686, Pol. Deptt (Secret) 1919, “Disturbance on Assam-Burma frontier 1917–1918”: From J. M. Wright, Esq., I.C.S., Superintendent, Chin Hills, to the Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma, Rangoon, dated the 20 July 1918.

7. Pau, Indo-Burma Frontier, 111.

8. National Archives of India (NAI), New Delhi: J. M. Wright, Report on the Administration of the Chin Hills for the year 1916–17.

9. Ibid., for the year ended 30 June 1915.

10. IOL&R Minute paper no. 2686 Secret Pol. Deptt, 1919: From J. M. Wright, Esq., I.C.S., Superintendent, Chin Hills, to the Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma, Rangoon, dated the 20 July 1918.

11. Carson, Pioneer Trails, 226.

12. Sakhong, In search of Chin identity, 156.

13. IOL&R Minute paper no. 2686 Secret Pol. Deptt, 1919; From J.M.Wright, Esq., I.C.S., Superintendent, Chin Hills, to the Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma, Rangoon, dated the 20 July 1918.

14. This paper has been developed from my earlier paper on “The “Haka Uprising” in Chin Hills, 1917–1919”. See, Pau, “The “Haka Uprising”.”

15. Ibid., From Lieutenant-Colonel J. L.W. ffrench-Mullen, CIE, IA, Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma (on special duty), to the Inspector-General of Police, Burma, dated the 17 September 1918, p. 12.

16. Ibid., From J. M. Wright Esq., I.C.S., Superintendent, Chin Hills, to the Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma dated camp Rangoon, he 20 July 1918.

17. Carson, Pioneer Trails, 227–8.

18. IOL&R Minute paper no. 2686 Secret Pol. Deptt, 1919; Disturbances in Assam-Burma frontier, 1917–1918. From J. M. Wright Esq., I.C.S., Superintendent, Chin Hills, to the Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma dated camp Rangoon, he 20 July 1918.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

25. Carson, Pioneer Trails, 227–30.

26. Johnson, American Baptist Chin Mission, 414.

27. Carson, Pioneer Trails, 232. Also see, Johnson, American Baptist Chin Mission, 415.

28. Carson, Pioneer Trails, 233.

29. Johnson, American Baptist Chin Mission, 416.

30. IOL&R Minute paper no. 2686 Secret Pol. Deptt, 1919: Disturbances in Assam-Burma frontier, 1917–1918. From the Hon’ble Mr. C. M. Webbs, I.C.S., Officiating Chief Secretary to the Government of Burma to the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, Foreign and Political Department, Rangoon, 25 February 1919.

31. Ibid., From Lieutenant-Colonel J. L.W. ffrench-Mullen, CIE, IA, Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma (on special duty), to the Inspector-General of Police, Burma, dated the 17 September 1918.

32. Subadar-Major Bakhtawar Singh and 15 Mounted Infantry and a little later 75 Infantry and a 7 pounder gun.

33. Ibid.

34. B. Fischer the Superintendent of Pakokku Hill Tracts reported that on 16 April 1918 a party consisting of Captain Alexander Assistant Commandant, a small escort and himself visited a group of villages known as Chan-im in order to calm the people who were very restless. They were attacked by the Chins killing one Military Police Havildar and wounding Alexander and two others.

35. Ibid., From J. M. Wright, Superintendent Chin Hills to the DIG of Military Police, Burma, Rangoon, dated 20 July 1918. Annexure F. From Captain H. L. Falkland, officiating Commandant, 1^st Lushai Hills Battalion, Assam Rifles (Commanding No. 2 Column), Chin Hills Battalion, to the Commandant, Chin Hills Battalion, Falam dated Aijal, the 7 May 1918.

36. Ibid., From J. M. Wright, Superintendent Chin Hills to the DIG of Military Police, Burma, Rangoon, dated 20 July 1918. Annexure E. Report on the operations against Naring and villages lying on the western slopes of the Boipa Klang in the Haka subdivision, Chin Hills by Major L.E.L. Burne, Attached Military Police.

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid., From Lieutenant-Colonel J. L.W. ffrench-Mullen, CIE, IA, Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma (on special duty), to the Inspector-General of Police, Burma, dated the 17 September 1918, p. 31

39. NAI, New Delhi, Report on the Administration of the Chin Hills for the year 1918–1919; Some of the most important Haka chiefs responsible for the trouble and sentenced under section 121 of the Indian Penal Code were: Lyen Mo son of Za Err, Van Mang son of Lyen Mo, Kin Hmon son of Lyen Mo, Tyer Non wife of Van Mang, Kup Hmin son of Lwe Sang, Tat Hmon son of Ya Klwe, Ni Kwel son of Kuk Hre, Tan Hnyer son of Lyen Kwe

40. Ibid., 1919–1920.

41. Johnson, American Baptist Chin Mission, 423–4; and also see Report on the Administration of the Chin Hills for the year 1919–1920.

42. Lian, “Chin involvement in World War I (The Great War).”

43. Lehman, Chin society, 139–40.

44. Ibid., 142.

45. See Guite, Politico-Economic Development.

46. Taxes collected by such chiefs mainly comprised: Mim siah/tang siah, sial lampi sap, tuikuang tui siah, in saliang, gam saliang, tuk tha khal tha, inn zangsial lamsa, tuk an khal an.

47. Khai, Zo People, 26.

48. Lehman, Chin Society, 26.

49. For further discussion, see Pershits, “Tribute Relations.”

50. Administrative titles of rulers of the northern hill tract may be mainly categorised into three: Hausa or Tulpi is a clan chief or village chief or priest; Mang refers to supra-local chief or chief who exerted influence over more than one village by dint of his power to collect taxes; Ukpi/Ukpipa/Innpipa is one who is paramount and whose sway extends to a large tract comprising numerous village chiefs and tributary-tribes. He is an autocratic ruler who enjoys formidable power and controls over a large tract. Each village headman or chief within his jurisdiction owed allegiance to him and paid all perquisite dues. The term per se is believed to be equivalent to the Indian title Raja.

51. H. N. C. Stevenson, The economics of the central Chins tribes (Aizawl: Tribal Research Institute, [1943] 1986)

52. Pau, Indo-Burma Frontier, 111.

53. See, Lian, Piantit.

54. Ibid., 33.

55. Ibid., 44.

56. IOL&R Minute paper no. 2686 Secret Pol. Deptt, 1919: Disturbances in Assam-Burma frontier, 1917–1918. From the Hon’ble Mr. C. M. Webbs, I.C.S., Officiating Chief Secretary to the Government of Burma to the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, Foreign and Political Department, Rangoon, 25 February 1919.

57. Ibid., From Lieutenant-Colonel J. L.W. ffrench-Mullen, CIE, IA, Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma (on special duty), to the Inspector-General of Police, Burma, dated the 17 Sept.1918.

58. Ibid., From J. M.Wright Esq., I.C.S., Superintendent, Chin Hills, to the Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma dated camp Rangoon, he 20 July 1918.

59. Ibid., From the Hon’ble Mr. C. M. Webbs, I.C.S., Officiating Chief Secretary to the Government of Burma to the Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, Foreign and Political Department, Rangoon, 25 February 1919.

60. Ibid., From Lieutenant-Colonel J. L.W. ffrench-Mullen, CIE, IA, Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma (on special duty), to the Inspector-General of Police, Burma, dated the 17 September 1918.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid.

63. Ibid., From J. M. Wright Esq., I.C.S., Superintendent, Chin Hills, to the Deputy Inspector-General of Military Police, Burma dated camp Rangoon, he 20 July 1918.

64. Ibid.

65. Carey and Tuck, The Chin Hills, 201.

66. Sakhong, Chin Identity, 37.

67. Khai, Zo People, 162–3.

68. Sakhong, Chin Identity, 36.

69. Refer to Pau, “The Chins and the British,” Appendix A.

70. For fuller discussion on this issue, see, Pau, “Colonialism vs chieftainship,” 211–25.

71. See note 68 above.

72. Pau, “Disarmament and Resistance,” 239.

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Notes on contributors

Pum Khan Pau

Pum Khan Pau is Associate Professor, Department of History, Manipur University, Imphal, Manipur. He is a Post-Doctoral Fellow at Arizona State University (2014-15). His area of research interest includes military history, colonial and borderland studies. Dr Pau is the author of Indo-Burma Frontier and the Making of the Chin Hills: Empire and Resistance (London, 2020). He has also published widely in several international journals.