Seven servants and their mistress: towards a social ecology of domestic service in Street, Somerset (1900–1905)

ABSTRACT

This article looks at the seven general maids who were employed by a single employer, either separately or together, between 1900 and 1905, in Street, Somerset, U.K. Its methodology is that of microhistory, identifying each of these servants by name from a set of letters written by their employer, which also detail their work for her. The background of each, together with her later life, is also then traced through official and other more public sources. Its aim is to recover these women as particular persons, rather than ‘types’, and thus to create for each of them a history of her own. It argues that by such methods it is also possible to explore what I here term a ‘social ecology’ of this particular local labour market, one that suggests how such work was structured in part by the family and community relationships of both servants and employer in this small Somerset town, and the social norms that surrounded domestic service there.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 These letters are part of the Papers of the Bancroft Family, 1715–1894, namely the letters of Sarah Bancroft Clark (henceforth SBC) to her mother, Emma Cooper Bancroft (henceforth, ECB), 1898–1928, the Alfred Gillett Trust, The Grange, Street, Somerset (henceforth, AGT), see, https://alfredgilletttrust.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/ban.pdf, accessed 22 February 2024. The material used here is also available on microfilm in the Bancroft Papers (Selected Items Only), A/AGM/1/1-4/21, 10 Reels, Somerset Heritage Centre, Somerset Archives and Local Studies, Taunton, England (henceforth, SALS), accessed 22 February 2024. Here I use the microfilm copies and listing at SALS, as the most widely accessible form. The reference numbers for the AGT holdings are the same, but are preceded by BAN/, not A/AGM/.

2 For a history that draws on the diary of an eighteenth-century employer of a general servant, see Carolyn Steedman, Master and Servant. Love and Labour in the English Industrial Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), to explore the working life of a longtime general servant in his household. Steedman explores the methodological issues raised by such a source, and analyses the social, legal and cultural structures that shaped a servant’s working life. Lucy Delap, Knowing Their Place. Domestic Service in Twentieth-Century Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), provides an innovative and subtle account of twentieth-century domestic service and servants through a cultural history, and on this period, see also, J. Giles, ‘Authority, Dependence and Power in Accounts of Twentieth-Century Domestic Service’, in The Politics of Domestic Authority in Britain since 1900, ed. Lucy Delap, Ben Griffin, and Abigail Wills (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 204–20. For a rare example of a servant’s diary, see Hannah Cullwick, The Diaries of Hannah Cullwick, ed. Liz Stanley (London: Virago, 1984), and also, Leonore Davidoff, ‘Class and Gender in Victorian England: the case of Hannah Cullwick and A. J. Munby’, Feminist Studies 5, no. 1 (1979): 103–50, reprinted in her Worlds Between: Historical Perspectives on Gender and Class (London: Polity Press, 1995), 18–40. For an account of another nineteenth-century general maid, Eliza Oldham, based on her letters, see Sandra Stanley Holton, ‘Friendship and Domestic Service. The Letters of Eliza Oldham, General Maid (c. 1820–1892)’, Women’s History Review 23, no. 3 (2015): 429–49.

3 William Turkel, quoted in Julia Laite, ‘The Emmet’s Inch: Small History in a Digital Age’, Journal of Social History 54, no. 4 (2020): 963–89, esp. 969.

4 Emma Rothschild, An Infinite History. The Story of a Family in France over Three Centuries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021).

5 Laite, ‘Emmet’s Inch’, 973–5. Alison Light, Mrs Woolf and the Servants. The Hidden Heart of Domestic Service (London: Fig Tree, 2007), xvii, argues against a history of servants as ‘mere types’.

6 Liz Stanley, ‘On Small and Big Stories of the Quotidian: The Commonplace and the Extraordinary in Narrative Inquiry’, in Narrative, Memory and Ordinary Lives (Huddersfield: University of Huddersfield, 2010), 1–24. ISBN 978-1-86218-090-1. This version is available at http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/9574/ (accessed 26 February 2024).

7 Compare with Sian Pooley, ‘Domestic Servants and their Urban Employers: A Case Study of Lancaster, 1880–1914’, Economic History Review 62, no. 2 (2009): 405–29, which employs largely quantitative methods, but reaches comparable conclusions on the importance of kinship and networks to domestic service in that particular locality, and encompasses the time period looked at here. Delap, Knowing Their Place, provides a more comprehensive account which also emphasises the importance of localities, kinship and networks.

8 A large literature around the private papers of women, not least their letters, has arisen out of intellectual interest in life-writing. Good starting points are: Margaret Jolly, Encyclopaedia of Life Writing. 2 vols (London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2001); and on letters in particular, Liz Stanley, ‘The Epistolarium: On Theorising Letters and Correspondence’, Auto/biography 13 (2005): 201–35.

9 On the family circle that SBC entered at her marriage, see Sandra Stanley Holton, Quaker Women, Personal Life, Memory and Radicalism in the Lives of Women Friends, 1780–1930 (London: Routledge, 2007).

10 On the domestic culture of this Quaker family circle, see Ibid., 53–5, 64–9, 184–7, and passim.

11 On the significance of place, see also Delap, Knowing Their 'Place', 22.

12 For a history of Street, see Michael McGarvie, The Book of Street. A History from the Earliest Times to 1925 (Buckingham: Barracuda Books in Association with C. & J. Clark, 1987). For a concise social history of this company, see Brendan Lehane, C. & J. Clark 1825–1975 (Street, Somerset: C. & J. Clark, 1975); for a full history, see Mark Palmer, Clarks: Made to Last. The Story of Britain’s Best Known Shoe Firm (London: Profile Books, 2013).

13 On the Clark family’s local, national and international reform interests, see Holton, Quaker Women; for their connections with reform movements in the United States in particular, see Sandra Stanley Holton, ‘“To Educate Women into Rebellion”. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the Creation of a Transatlantic Network of Radical Suffragists’, American Historical Review 99 (1992): 1112–36; Sandra Stanley Holton, ‘Segregation, Racism and White Women Reformers: A Transnational Perspective’, Women’s History Review 10 (2001): 5–25.

14 SBC to ECB, 19 October 1900, A/AGM/1/52, Reel, 5, SALS.

15 My thanks to Julie Mather, Archivist, AGT, for identifying this house as that previously known as ‘Overleigh Farm’. My use of ‘Whitenights’ is anachronistic, but is adopted here because that was what Sarah and Roger Clark subsequently chose to call it.

16 For example, SBC to ECB, 27 August, 4 and 28 September 1900, 2 October 1900, all at AGM/A/1/52; 2 January 1901, 2 April 1901, 16 June 1901, all at AGM/A/1/53, both Reel 5, SALS.

17 Light, Mrs Woolf and the Servants, xviii, emphasises the mutual dependency involved in domestic service as part of women’s gendered work of caring. See, too, Delap, Knowing Their Place, which explores, for example, the emotional aspects of domestic service.

18 Over the course of this research I have largely used an ancestry.com site, https://www.ancestry.com.au. But such sources would also be accessible through the UK site of this commercial database, and there is also free online access for some of these sources, such as the Indexes to the UK Registers of Births, Marriages and Deaths. While drawing my data from the online sources available at ancestry.com.au, I also give any official location and identification in my first reference to that sources, thereafter referencing it only in an abbreviated form. For the family of Lizzie Reynolds, see ‘Elizabeth Reynolds’ (1891), census return for Portway, Street, Somerset, Census Returns of England and Wales, 1891, RG 12, 1916, f. 110, p. 10, Public Record Office (henceforth, PRO), the National Archives, Kew, London (henceforth, NA). See also, the 1901 census records for the separate households of her parents, ‘Joseph Reynolds’ (1901), census return for Portway, Street, Somerset, RG 13, 2319, f. 77, p. 23, and ‘Elizabeth Reynolds’ (1901), census return for 16 ?Brutasche Terrace, Street, Somerset, RG 13, 2319, f. 56, p. 13, both PRO, NA. All accessed at ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024.

19 As a point of comparison, see ‘Jane Reynolds’ (1891), census return for Ivy Thorn Farm, Street, Somerset, RG 12, 1916, f. 107, p. 4, PRO, NA, recording this older sister of Lizzie Reynolds as a live-in, domestic servant on a farm, aged 14, accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024.

20 See, ‘Rhoda Reynolds’ (1901), and ‘Helen Reynolds’ (1901), both census return for ‘Millfield’, Street, Somerset, RG 13, 2319, f. 50, p. 2, PRO, NA, accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024.

21 For an account of these negotiations, see SBC to ECB, 2 April 1901, A/AGM/1/53, Reel, 5, SALS. Rhoda Reynolds continued to correspond occasionally with her former employer, Helen P. B. Clark, long after her marriage, see, for example, Rhoda Churchill (previously, Reynolds) to Helen P. B. Clark, 20 January 1910; 23 October 1917; undated fragment; 20 June 1918, all Miscellaneous Correspondence of Helen Priestman Bright Clark, Millfield Papers, MIL 64, AGT. Further discussion of Helen Clark and her servants is to be found in Laura Schwarz, Feminism and the Servant Problem. Class and Domestic Labour in the Women’s Suffrage Movement (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 30, 43–51, 54, 72, 79–80. Schwarz explores the tense relations that might arise between middle-class suffragist employers and their suffragist servants. But for evidence of an alternative view, and further complexity, see Sandra Stanley Holton, ‘The Suffragist and the “Average Woman”’, Women’s History Review 1, no. 1 (1992): 9–24, 20.

22 SBC to EBC, 30 October 1900, and see also 10 August, 28 September, 8 October 1900, all at A/AGM/1/52, Reel 5, SALS.

23 Ibid., 23 April 1901, A/AGM/A/1/53, Reel 5, SALS.

24 Ibid., 5 February 1901.

25 Ibid., 31 August, 17 September, 2 October 1900, all A/AGM/A/1/52, Reel 5, SALS, on her early acknowledgment of Lizzie Reynolds’s cooking skills. For SBC’s dissatisfaction with the attitude of Lizzie Reynolds towards cleaning, laundry work, and reprimands, Ibid., 27 August, 28 September, 30 October 1900.

26 Ibid., 7 September, 11 September, 28 September 1900.

27 Ibid., 2 April 1901, and see also 23 April, 16 June 1901, A/AGM/A/1/53, Reel 5, SALS.

28 Ibid., 2 April 1901, on the ‘great domestic turmoil’ that arose over the issue of pay. On the moodiness of Lizzie Reynolds, see Ibid., 28 September, 30 October 1900, A/AGM/A/1/52, Reel 5, SALS.

29 On SBC’s occasional employment of Elizabeth Reynolds (snr), see, Ibid., 17 May and 1 November 1901, A/AGM/A/1/53, Reel 5, SALS, and on the improvement in the temper of Lizzie Reynolds after visits from her sister and brother, see Ibid., 21 May 1901.

30 Ibid., 2 April, 26 April, 4 October 1901.

31 Ibid., 2 April, 17 May, 4 October 1901.

32 Ibid., 4 October, 11 October, 18 October, 22 October, 1 November 1901.

33 Ibid., 22 October 1901; also, 18 November 1902, A/AGM/1/54, Reel 6, SALS.

34 For Jane Cox’s family, see Isaac Cox, n. d. [?June 1834], Baptism, England and Wales, Non-Conformist and Non-Parochial Registers, 1567–1936, General Register Office, Government Social Survey Department, and Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, Registrar General (henceforth, GRO), RG 4, n. p., PRO, NA; Isaac Cox (1832), almost certainly the grandfather of Jane Cox of that name, Poll Book for Somerton, UK and London Poll Books. London, England, London Metropolitan Archives and Guildhall Library (LMA); Isaac Cox, her father, died 23 December 1901, probate granted 12 May 1902, England & Wales, National Probate Calendar (Index of Wills and Administrations), 1858–1995 (henceforth, Probate Calendar, PPR), Principal Probate Registry, Probate Registries of the High Court of Justice in England, London, England. On Jane Cox’s early years and employment, see ‘Jane Cox’ (1861), 1861 census for Northfield, Somerton, Somerset, RG 9, 1628, f. 54, p. 15; ‘Jane Cox’ (1871), 1871 census for Pound Pool, Somerton, Somerset, RG 10, 2392, f. 20, p. 31; ‘Jane Cox’ (1881), 1881 census for Langport Road, Somerton, Somerset, RG 11, 2379, f. 17, p. 26; ‘Jane Cox’ (1891), census return for ‘Millfield’, Street, 1891 census, RG 12, 1916, f. 20, p. 31; ‘Jane Cox’ (1901), census, return for ‘Millfield’, Street, RG 13, 2319, f. 51, p. 3, all PRO, NA, accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024.

35 SBC to ECB, 5 November, 8 November, 12 November 1901, A/AGM/A/1/53, Reel 5, SALS.

36 Among my sources for Jessie Christopher’s parents are: ‘William Christopher’ (1861), census return for 11 Goswell Lane, Street, Somerset, RG 9, 1667, f. 118, p. 25; ‘William Christopher’ (1881), census return for 242 Portobello Road East Side, Kensington, Middlesex, RG 11, 37, f. 58, p. 13; ‘Alice Hope’ (1861), census return for Landgrove ?Common, Llangarren, Herefordshire, RG 9, 1815, f. 36, p. 22; ‘Alice Hope’ (1881), census return for 20 Ladbroke Gardens, Kensington, Middlesex, RG 11, 42, f. 60, p. 17, all PRO, NA, all accessed ancestry.com.au. For their marriage, 30 March 1884, All Saints Church of England, Notting Hill, Kensington, Middlesex, Church of England Marriage Registers, LMA; William Christopher, 35, buried 24 February 1890, Burials Register, Somerset, England, Anglican Registers, 1813–1914, SALS; for the widowed Alice Christopher, ‘Alice Christopher’ (1891), census return for 4 Beales Terrace, Leyton, Essex, RG 12, 1347, f. 127, p. 8. PRO, NA, accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024. For the early years of Jessie Christopher, see, Jessie Grace Christopher, baptism 23 August 1891, b. 10 August 1887, St Margaret of Antioch Church of England, Leytonstone, Essex, Baptism Registers, Essex Church of England Parish Registers, Essex Record Office, Chelmsford, Essex. See also, ‘Jessie Christopher’ (1891), census return for Goswell Lane, Street, Somerset, RG 12, 1916, f. 91, n. p.; ‘Jessie Christopher’ (1901), census return for Leigh Road, Street, Somerset, RG 13, 2319, f. 37, p. 21, both PRO, NA. All accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024.

37 SBC to ECB, 26 November, 20 December 1901, A/AGM/A/1/53, Reel 5, SALS.

38 Ibid., 2 May, 13 May, 27 May, 3 June, 23 December 1902, A/AGM/A/1/54, Reel 6, SALS.

39 On Bessie Pope’s family and her early years, see: 2 June 1890, baptism of Bessie Louisa Pope, b. 24 August 1882, Long Sutton Church of England Baptism Register, Anglican Registers, SALS; For her father’s early death, see, 4 November 1888, Burial of Frederick Pope, 48, Long Sutton Church of England, Burials Register, Anglican Registers, SALS; ‘Bessie Pope’ (1891), census return for Langport Road, Long Sutton, Somerset, RG12, 1889, f. 10, n. p.; ‘Bessie Pope’ (1901), 1901 census return for Manor Farm, Long Sutton, RG13, 2287, f. 139, p. 2, both PRO, NA, all accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024.

40 SBC to ECB, 13 May, 16 May, 18 May, 27 May 1902, A/AGM/A/1/54, Reel 6, SALS.

41 Ibid., SBC to ECB, 15 July, 18 July 1902.

42 Ibid., SBC to ECB, 11 November, 18 November, 18 December 1902.

43 Among my sources on the family and earlier life of Alice Parsons are: 2 October 1841, marriage of Charles Parsons and Hannah [more usually recorded as Ann/a] Loveridge, St Mary Church of England, Bridgwater, Marriage Register, Anglican Parish Registers, SALS; birth of Alice Parsons, England and Wales, Civil Registration Birth Index, 1916–2007, December 1844, Bridgwater, Somerset, Volume 10: 361; ‘Alice Parsons’ (1851), census return for Moorlinch, Somerset, HO 107, 1925, f. 537, p. 10; ‘Alice Parsons’ (1861), 1861 census return for Milltown, Curry Rivel, Somerset, RG 9, 1631, f. 24, p. 22: ‘Alice Parsons’ (1871), 1871 census return for 3 Clifton Wood Crescent, Clifton, Gloucestershire, RG 10, 2542, f. 15, p. 22; ‘Alice Parsons’ (1881), 1881 census return for 25 Brighton Street, Bristol, Gloucestershire, RG 11, 2473, f. 106, p. 1; ‘Alice Parsons’ (1901) census return for Beryll, Ashcott, Somerset, RG 13, f. 173, p. 1, all PRO, NA, all accessed ancestry.co.au, 21 February 2024.

44 SBC to ECB, 30 December 1902, A/AGM/A/1/54; 2 January 1903, A/AGM/A/1/55, both Reel 6, SALS.

45 Ibid., 9 January, 20 January, 23 January, [26?] January, 13 March, 17 March, 17 April 1903, A/AGM/A/1/55, Reel 6, SALS.

46 Ibid., 19 May, 1 June, 30 June 1903.

47 See note 30. ‘Jessie Christopher’ (1911), census return for Leigh Road, Street, Somerset, RG 14, 1454, n. p.; ‘Jessie Christopher’ (1939), return for 6 Strode Cottages, Street, Somerset, 1939 Register for England and Wales, RG 101, 313-2, PRO, NA, both accessed 21 February 2024; entry for Jessie Grace Christopher, d. 9 November 1961, administration granted to Violet Evelyn Pascoe, 17 April 1962, Probate Calendar, 1962 (PPR), all accessed 21 February 2024.

48 SBC to ECB, 18 September, 24 September 1903, A/AGM/A/1/56; 5 February 1904, A/AGM/A/1/57, Reel 6, SALS.

49 Some records of Kate Ann Carter and her family include: 1 May 1887, baptism of Kate Ann Carter, daughter of Edmund and Eliza, St Benedict’s Church of England, Glastonbury, Baptism Register, Anglican Registers, SALS; ‘Kate Ann Carter’ (1891), census return for 43 Bere Lane, Glastonbury, Somerset RG 12, 1915, f. 116, n. p.; ‘Kate A. Carter’ (1901), census return for 45 Bere Lane, Glastonbury, Somerset, RG 13, 2318, f. 86, p. 13, all PRO, NA, accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024.

50 SBC to ECB, n. d. [c. 31 March 1904], A/AGM/A/1/57, Reel 6, SALS.

51 Ibid., 16 December 1904.

52 Ibid., 20 December1904. On Emily May Carter, see: 30 November 1890, baptism of Emily May Carter, St Benedict Church of England Baptisms Register 1890, Anglican Parish Registers, SALS, accessed 21 February 2024. For her birth family, see note 44.

53 ‘Jane Cox’ (1911), census return for Pound Pool, Somerton, Somerset, 1911 Census, RG 14, n.p.; ‘Jane Cox’ (1939), at West Street, Langport Road, Somerset, 1939 Register, Series RG 101, both PRO, NA; death of Jane Cox, July 1948, Wells, Somerset, volume 7c, p. 208, Index to the Death Registers, GRO, NA, all accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024.

54 25 August 1907, marriage of Bessie Pope and Frederick Westlake, Long Sutton Church of England, Marriage Register, Anglican Registers, SALS; ‘Bessie Westlake’ (1911), census return for 34 Queen Street, Bleingawr, Llangeinor, Glamorgan, Wales, 1911 Census, RG 14, PRO, NA; death of Bessie Westlake, July 1926, Langport, Somerset, volume 5c, p. 345, Index of Deaths Registers, GRO, NA, both accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024.

55 ‘Jessie Christopher’ (1911) census return for Leigh Road, Street, RG 14, n. p.; ‘Jessie Christopher’ (1939), record for 6 Strode Cottages, Street, 1939 Register, RG 101, both PRO, NA; Jessie Christopher, d. 9 November 1961, administration of her estate granted to Violet Evelyn Pasco, Probate Calendar (PPR) 1962: 263. All accessed ancestry.com.au, 22 February 2024.

56 13 January 1907, marriage of Kate Annie Carter and Thomas John Maundrell, St John Church of England, Glastonbury, Marriage Register, Anglican Registers, SALS. For the death of her father, the previous year, see, n. d. April 1906, Burial of Edmund Carter, 53, carpenter, of Bere Lane, Glastonbury, Burial Register of St Benedict Church of England, Glastonbury, Anglican Registers, SALS; Edmund Carter, d. 8 April 1906, administration of his estate granted to his widow, Eliza Carter, 27 April 1906, Probate Calendar, 1906 (PPR). All accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024. For Kate Maundrell’s later life, see, ‘Kate Maundrell’ (1911), census return for 255 Walton Road, Woking, Surrey, 1911 Census, RG 14 n. p., PRO, NA accessed ancestry.com.au, 21 February 2024; Kate Annie Maundrell, at 101 St Leonards Road, Brighton, East Sussex, England, Electoral Registers for Brighton 1922, East Sussex, England, Electoral Registers, 1705–1963, East Sussex and Brighton and Hove Record Office, Sussex England; Kate Annie Maundrell, at 5 Winchester Road, Worthing, West Sussex, England, 1926 Electoral Register for Worthing 1926, West Sussex Electoral Registers. Chichester, West Sussex, England: West Sussex Record Office; Kate Ann Carter, otherwise Kate Annie, d. 11 October 1974, probate granted 6 November 1974, Probate Calendar (PPS), 1974. All accessed ancestry.com.au, 22 February 2024.

57 For some sources on the later life of Emily Carter, see ‘Emily Carter’ (1911), census return for 47 Benedict Street, Glastonbury, 1911 Census, RG 14, n. p., PRO, NA, accessed ancestry.com.au, 22 February 2024; 22 November 1912, Emily May Carter, 22, and Alfred Gilbert Chubb, 23, Marriage Register, St Benedict Church of England, Glastonbury, Somerset, Anglican Registers, SALS; 20 April 1913, Emily May Chubb, 22, List or Manifest of Alien Passengers for the United States, S. S. Franconia. Her husband, Alfred Gilbert Chubb, 23, Shoemaker, had gone ahead, see List or Manifest of Alien Passengers for the United States, S. S. Franconia, 12 November 1912, final destination, Lynn, Massachusetts, both Passenger and Crew Lists of Vessels Arriving at New York, New York, 1897–1957; Microfilm Publication T715, 8892 rolls; NAID: 300346; Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, Record Group 85; National Archives in Washington, DC. Both accessed ancestry.com.au, 22 February 2024.

58 ‘Sarah Bancroft Clark’ (1911), census return for Little Overleigh, Street, Somerset, 1911 Census, RG 14, 14545, PRO, NA, accessed ancestry.com.au, 22 February 2024; SBC to ECB, 24 June 1911, A/AGM/A/1/66, Reel 8, AGT, SALS.

59 On the Street Women’s Suffrage Society, see, for example, Ibid., 24 October, 29 December 1911, 25 May, 10 June 1912, 14 June 1912 with cutting ‘Street Women’s Suffrage Society’, n.d.; 27 August, 11 October 1912, A/AGM/A/1/67, both Reel 8, AGT, SALS; Holton, Quaker Women, 218. AGT holds some records of the Street Infant/Child Welfare Association/Clinic/Centre, 1929–1931, and 1930s–1960s, among the papers of Sarah and Roger Clark at WN/65/3, AGT. My thanks to Julie Mather, AGT, for this reference.

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Sandra Stanley Holton

Sandra Holton is a retired Australian historian and author of Feminism and Democracy. Women’s Suffrage and Progressive Politics, 1900–1918, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986; Suffrage Days. Stories from the Women’s Suffrage Movement, London: Routledge, 1996; Quaker Women. Personal Life, Memory and Radicalism in the Lives of Women Friends (1800–1920), London: Routledge, 2007. Her articles on women’s history, medical history, religious history, transnational history and Australian history have appeared in American Historical Review, Australian Historical Studies, Victorian Studies History Workshop Journal, Journal of Women’s History, Albion, as well as those in Women’s History Review and elsewhere, and chapters in edited collections.