Reaching the marginalised? Gender value chains and ethical trade in African horticulture

Abstract

Ethical trade, through codes of practice, forms an important part of the value chains for horticultural products sourced from Africa by major European buyers. This paper explores the relationship between value chains in the horticultural sector, the employment patterns of African producers, and the process of code implementation from a gender perspective. It asks whether, in the context of the gendered economy, codes alone can improve working conditions for all workers. Using case studies of Kenyan flowers, South African fruit, and Zambian flowers and vegetables, the article highlights the implications of flexible employment strategies for workers, and shows that social codes have not necessarily achieved better outcomes for women and informal workers, owing to the gendered economy. Ultimately, it is only by addressing the local gendered economy that the employment conditions of all workers, including those of marginal workers and women, are likely to improve.

Acknowledgements

This paper is based on a research project funded by DFID (SSR project 8077, Ethical Trade in African Horticulture), coordinated by the Institute for Development Studies (IDS) at the University of Sussex. The views and opinions expressed are those of the authors alone.

Notes

1. Unless otherwise specified, references to Kenya are from Dolan et al. (2003), to South Africa from Kleinbooi et al. (forthcoming), and to Zambia from Tallontire et al. (2004).

2. UK supermarkets dominate the domestic fresh-produce market and some, such as Tesco, are significant in the global retail sector: Tesco was eighth in the world in terms of global retail sales in 2002 at US$39,517 million, compared to Wal-Mart at number one with US$229,671 million (Retail Industry 2003).

3. UK supermarkets have been most active with regard to social codes. In other European countries retailers have relied on EUREP GAP. Interestingly, in the USA there is considerable activity on codes in the branded-clothing sector but relatively little on foods, beyond fair trade and environmentally friendly coffee.

4. However, in contrast to other sectoral codes (whether Northern or Southern), EUREP GAP is retail driven.

5. One farm was previously MPS certified, but withdrew from MPS when MPS and KFC announced their collaboration.

6. The quantitative data presented in Table 1 are not representative of the industries as a whole as we undertook a purposive analysis, aimed at identifying companies that were implementing social and/or environmental codes and supplying European markets. The companies can be regarded as some of the more progressive in the industry. Another problem is the comparability of the data due to the differing definitions of permanent, seasonal, and casual worker used between countries and even between firms in the same country.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Anne Tallontire

Anne Tallontire leads the Enterprise, Trade and Finance Group at the Natural Resources Institute and is a core member of the Natural Resources and Ethical Trade programme, where her research focuses on fair trade, ethical sourcing, corporate responsibility, international trade, and gender issues.

Catherine Dolan

Catherine Dolan is Assistant Professor of Anthropology at Northeastern University. She is a specialist on Eastern Africa and her research focuses on the political economy of food and agriculture, development theory, gender and employment, and the social relations of commodities.

Sally Smith

Sally Smith is a Research Officer at IDS, where she is part of the Globalisation Team. She is currently researching the growth and implications of fair trade in the mainstream, and on the impacts of ethical trade for workers in global value chains.

Stephanie Barrientos

Stephanie Barrientos is a Fellow at IDS in the Globalisation Team. Her main areas of interest are in gender and development, with particular focus on globalisation, agribusiness, ethical trade, corporate responsibility, and international labour standards.