Institutional change: the unanticipated consequences of action

Abstract

This article argues that the managerial approaches to development need to be reconstituted through a more comprehensive understanding of how institutional and behavioural change processes occur. Drawing from a case study in Nepal, and by exploring the largely unintended consequences of project actions, this article argues for viewing change as a complex social phenomenon based on people's interests, motivations, relationships, and actions that are embedded in their historical and cultural situations. In the final analysis, it is argued that the effectiveness of managerial approaches cannot be understood or applied outside an understanding of change processes.

Changements institutionnels : les conséquences imprévues de l'action

Cet article soutient que les approches managérielles du développement doivent être reconstituées au moyen d'une compréhension plus complète de la manière dont les processus de changements institutionnels et comportementaux ont lieu. En s'inspirant d'une étude de cas du Népal, et en se penchant sur les conséquences largement imprévues des actions des projets, cet article soutient la perception du changement comme un phénomène social complexe fondé sur les intérêts, les motivations, les relations et les actions des personnes, lesquels sont ancrés dans leurs situations historiques et culturelles. En dernière analyse, il est soutenu que l'efficacité des approches managérielles ne peut être comprise ou appliquée en dehors d'une compréhension des processus de changement.

Mudança institucional: consequências não previstas de ação

Este artigo argumenta que as abordagens gerenciais relativas a desenvolvimento precisam ser reconstituídas através de uma compreensão mais abrangente de como os processos de mudança institucional e comportamental ocorrem. Baseando-se em um estudo de caso do Nepal e explorando as consequências não-antecipadas de ações do projeto em grande parte, este artigo defende a visão da mudança como um fenômeno social complexo baseado nos interesses, motivações, relações e ações de pessoas que estão inseridos em suas situações históricas e culturais. Na análise final, o artigo argumenta que a efetividade das abordagens gerenciais não pode ser compreendida ou aplicada sem a compreensão dos processos de mudança.

Cambio institucional: las consecuencias no previstas de la acción

Este ensayo sostiene que un análisis más profundo de los procesos de cambio institucionales y conductuales conducirá también a un cambio en los métodos gerenciales que se aplican en el desarrollo. Basándose en un estudio de caso de Nepal y explorando las consecuencias no previstas derivadas de las acciones de los proyectos, el ensayo afirma que el cambio constituye un fenómeno social complejo que depende de los intereses, las motivaciones, relaciones y acciones de las personas, las cuales emanan de su historia y su cultura. Se sostiene que los métodos gerenciales no pueden comprenderse ni aplicarse de manera eficaz sin entender los procesos de cambio.

Keywords:

• Civil society
• Environment
• Gender and diversity
• Governance and public policy
• Methods
• Social sector
• South Asia

Notes

See Biggs (2007) for a more detailed discussion of the unquestioned usage of managerial approaches.

This model of social change draws from practice theory, whose central premise is that society is a system; that the system constrains human action; yet the system is made and unmade through action and interaction. In this framework, analysis does not privilege either ‘individuals’ or ‘social factors’ alone, but rather the dynamic, powerful, and transformative relationship between the practices of real people and the structures of society, culture, and history. For more on practice theory, see Marshall Sahlins (1981) and Sherry Ortner (2006). See Merton (1936) for insights about change as an unanticipated consequence of action.

For works on change through encounters, see Marshall Sahlins (1981).

Relational practice, also called ‘growth-in-connection’, is a psychological model of adult growth which emphasises the relational interactions in the development process of individuals. For more on relational-practice theory, see Fletcher (1999).

It may be important to note the theoretical debate on the role of ‘intentionality’ behind human actions. Sherry Ortner (2006) provides an overview of the different views of various authors in this debate.

She established, and co-ordinates, a network of professional women and men committed to women's empowerment called the Society for Partners in Development.

This model of adult growth stands in contrast to the dominant and prevailing model based on separation, individuation, and independence. Relational practice, or ‘growth-in-connection’, emphasises the role of relational interactions in the human-development process (see, for example, Jordan et al. 1991; Miller and Stiver 1997, both cited in Fletcher 1999).

‘Preserving practice’ refers to the activities of individuals who shoulder responsibilities that go beyond the technical definitions of their jobs, even if at times it means putting aside personal agendas, or sacrificing some symbols of their status. Some of the skills of such members are their abilities to think contextually, anticipate consequences, and sense the emotional situations in order to take action (Fletcher 1999).

Official figures derived from the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (2003) show that of a total of 246 officer cadres within the organisation, there were only five women professionals. At relatively lower levels of the professional cadre, there were a reported 27 females among a total of 1189 forest rangers. There were no women professionals at the policy-making levels (cited in Gurung et al. 2005).

Gurung et al. (2005) argue that the practice of forestry excludes women and retains its ‘exclusive’ status by subscribing to masculine sensibilities and a sense of ‘professionalism’. Women are viewed as ‘weak’ and unable to perform effectively in pursuits such as ‘handling a gun, as well as a chainsaw, while tackling wild animals, disease, and the populace alike’. Moreover, the profession of forestry is viewed as ‘a field of expertise that is, according to professional norms, to be practiced only by those who are inducted into the profession by obtaining a forestry degree from a specialised school’.

‘Creating team’ is a type of relational practice that is intended to foster group life. ‘It differs from the generally understood notion of “team building” because it is concerned with creating a generalised experience of team rather than the more typical task of creating team identity. Traditional team-building activities are assumed to be the responsibility of the team leader, and include such things as setting boundaries, determining lines of authority, setting goals, or defining tasks. In contrast, working to create the experience of team requires activities intended to create the foundational conditions in which group life flourishes. The intention is to create baseline relational conditions for growth-in-connection’ (Fletcher 1999: 73–4).

‘Mutual empowerment’ is a type of relational practice in which certain activities attributed to one set of actors lead to others' achievement. Underlying such activities is the belief that empowering another is a mutually beneficial process. It is characterised by a willingness to put effort into ‘embedded outcomes’, which manifest through increased knowledge, competence, and self-confidence in the learners (Wadel 1979, cited in Fletcher 1999).

It can also be characterised as a form of ‘teaching’ which places the learners' intellectual or emotional reality at its core.

The book was titled ‘Profiles of Village Women Working as Social Mobilisers’ (Samajik parichalikako rupma karya garna grammen mahila-haruko wewaran).

Cato Wadel (1979) coined the term ‘embedded outcomes’ to refer to increased competence, increased self-confidence, or increased knowledge.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Barun Gurung

Barun Gurung (corresponding author) is an anthropologist whose research interests include indigenous knowledge, the politics of organisational practices, organisational change, and the influence of masculinities on research and development systems.

Stephen Biggs

Stephen Biggs is now mainly retired, but still professionally active, with interests in fair/ethical trade, participatory rural research and development, and science and technology policy and practice. He is a research fellow in the School of Development Studies at the University of East Anglia. <[email protected]>