Trajectories of transnational Muslim NGOs

Abstract

Transnational Muslim NGOs are increasingly important actors in the field of aid provision. Much of the literature has presented a rather static and homogeneous picture of this group of organisations, overlooking their heterogeneity and changing nature. Tracing the historical trajectories of transnational Muslim NGOs, this article shows how changing political, economic, and social contexts have shaped the identities, activities, and relations of these organisations. Using four specific events – the famine in the Horn of Africa, the wars in Afghanistan and Bosnia, and the War on Terror – as windows through which to study these trajectories, the article argues that recent history has seen the emergence of at least four types of transnational Muslim NGO: da'watist, jihadist, solidarity-based, and secularised.

Trajectoires d'ONG musulmanes transnationales

Les ONG musulmanes transnationales sont des acteurs de plus en plus importants dans le domaine de la prestation de secours humanitaires. Une grande partie des documents écrits à leur sujet ont présenté un tableau assez statique et homogène de ce groupe d'organisations, oubliant leur hétérogénéité et leur nature en mutation. En retraçant les trajectoires historiques des ONG musulmanes transnationales, cet article montre comment les contextes politiques, économiques et sociaux en évolution ont façonné les identités, activités et relations de ces organisations. En se servant de quatre événements précis – la famine de la Corne de l'Afrique, les guerres d'Afghanistan et de Bosnie et la Guerre contre le terrorisme – comme voies permettant d'étudier ces trajectoires, l'article soutient que l'on a assisté récemment à l'apparition d'au moins quatre types d'ONG musulmane transnationale : da'watiste, jihadiste, solidaire et laïcisé.

Trajetórias de ONGs Muçulmanas transnacionais

As ONGs Muçulmanas Transnacionais são cada vez mais agentes importantes na área de provisão de ajuda humanitária. Grande parte da literatura tem apresentado um quadro mais estático e homogêneo deste grupo de organizações, ignorando sua heterogeneidade e natureza variável. Traçando as trajetórias históricas de ONGs Muçulmanas transnacionais, este artigo mostra como a mudança de contextos políticos, econômicos e sociais têm influenciado as identidades, atividade e relações destas organizações. Utilizando quatro eventos específicos – a fome na região do Chifre da África, as guerras no Afeganistão e Bósnia, e a Guerra ao Terror – como janelas através das quais estuda-se estas trajetórias, o artigo argumenta que a história recente tem presenciado a emergência de pelo menos quatro tipos de ONGs Muçulmanas transnacionais: da'watist, jihadist, baseada em solidariedade e secularizada.

Las trayectorias de las ONG islámicas multinacionales

Las ONG multinacionales islámicas son actores cada vez más importantes para el suministro de ayuda. Lo que se ha escrito al respecto ofrece una imagen estática y homogénea de estas organizaciones pasando por alto su heterogeneidad y dinamismo. Este ensayo, basado en una investigación de las trayectorias históricas de las ONG multinacionales islámicas, muestra cómo los contextos políticos, económicos y sociales en evolución han moldeado las identidades, actividades y relaciones de estas organizaciones. A través de cuatro casos —la hambruna en el Cuerno de África, las guerras en Afganistán y Bosnia y la guerra contra el terrorismo— como ejemplos para examinar sus trayectorias, este ensayo sostiene que en el pasado reciente han emergido al menos cuatro tipos de ONG multinacionales islámicas: dawatistas, yihadistas, solidarias y laicas.

Keywords:

• Aid
• Civil society – NGOs

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank staff members in various transnational Muslim NGOs who contributed with time and insights, including staff in the Aga Khan Foundation, IICO, IIROSA, Direct Aid, Islamic Relief, Muslim Aid, Muslim Hands, the World Assembly of Muslim Youth, and many others. I would also like to thank a number of scholars for providing valuable comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this article, including Lars Engberg-Pedersen, Esbern Friis, Luke Patey, and Ole Therkildsen at the Danish Institute for International Studies, the Development in Practice guest editor, Carole Rakodi, and an anonymous peer reviewer.

Notes

Especially since 9/11, much of the literature on transnational Muslim NGOs stems from political science and terrorism studies, focusing on their role as front organisations for global militant networks such as Al Qaeda or supporters of resistance groups in Palestine, Sudan, Afghanistan, and elsewhere (Juul Petersen 2012).

See Juul Petersen 2012 and Jones and Juul Petersen 2011 for reviews of this literature.

For a historical account of Islamic charity, see Singer 2008.

Literally people involved in jihad (struggle), also used to refer to the fragmented armed resistance groups in Afghanistan.

See www.acbar.org (last accessed 15 November 2011). Later, Islamic Relief – which only started working in Afghanistan in 1992 – became a member.

Information from US State Department, www.treasury.gov/resource-center/terrorist-illicit-finance/Pages/protecting-fto.aspx (last accessed 15 November 2011).

Aid traditions in the USA differ. According to the 2001 Faith-based and Community Initiatives Act, for instance, organisations can have religious symbols on display in places where US aid is distributed. Although they are encouraged to make it clear to recipients that they do not have to participate in religious activities in order to receive aid, they are not required to do so (James 2009). The provisions of this Act were reinforced by a 2004 ruling on Participation by Religious Orders in USAID Programmes, which stated that the US Agency for International Development cannot discriminate against organisations which combine aid activities with ‘inherently religious activity such as worship, religious instruction or proselytization’ (quoted in James 2009: 7). In practice, however, these rulings do not apply to Muslim organisations, since more than 98 per cent of USAID funding goes to Christian organisations (von Hippel 2007).

Whether these organisations succeed in transforming the mainstream development jargon they use into practice is another question. For example, while organisations such as Muslim Aid and Islamic Relief are increasingly involved in activities such as human rights education, disaster risk reduction and microfinance, a large part of their funds is still spent on more traditional welfare activities such as orphan sponsorship and religious activities, such as celebrations of religious holidays.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Marie Juul Petersen

Marie Juul Petersen holds a PhD in the Sociology of Religion from the University of Copenhagen. She is currently working as a researcher at the Danish Institute for International Studies. Her research focuses on Islam and aid provision, including local Muslim charities, transnational Muslim NGOs and intergovernmental aid agencies.