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Abstract
This essay examines socio-economic processes during the Soviet period to help explain the causes of peace and conflict in the post-Soviet North Caucasus. It argues that the absence of an ethnically stratified social structure in Kabardino-Balkaria is one of the reasons why this republic enjoyed relative intercommunal peace and stability in the 1990s and early 2000s. By contrast, the surrounding national republics of the North Caucasus that came out of the Soviet era with socio-economic disparities along ethnic lines witnessed higher levels of intercommunal conflict. This essay looks to the understudied topic of post-World War II and late Soviet nationalities policies to explain Kabardino-Balkaria’s divergent historical trajectory.
While conducting the research for this essay, the author was a PhD candidate in the Department of History at Ohio State University.
Notes
1 These themes and arguments are found in my dissertation, which examines the development of the region now known as Kabardino-Balkaria under Russian rule from the late eighteenth century to the post-Soviet era (Lanzillotti Citation2014).
2 Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Sotsial’no-Politicheskoi Istorii (hereafter RGASPI), f. 17, op. 116, d. 25, l. 19.
3 Tsentr Dokumentatsii Noveishei Istorii Kabardino-Balkarskoi Respubliki (hereafter TsDNI KBR), f. P-1, op. 1, d. 1816, ll. 369–70.
4 TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 1816, ll. 369–70.
5 TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 1816, ll. 369–70.
6 On the loss of Kabardian-language literature and textbooks and the problems of rebuilding the republic’s cultural and educational infrastructure after the war, see Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii, f. A259, op. 5, d. 435, ll. 3–4.
7 RGASPI, f. 17, op. 122, d. 304, l. 22.
8 RGASPI, f. 17, op. 122, d. 304, ll. 23–4.
9 TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 2324, l. 52.
10 Tsentral’nyi Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Kabardino-Balkarskoi Respubliki (hereafter TsGA KBR), f. 686, op. 1, d. 474, ll. 60–7.
11 TsDNI KBR, f. P-112, op. 1, d. 45, l. 22.
12 TsGA KBR, f. 686, op. 1, d. 474, ll. 60–1.
13 See, for example, TsGA KBR, f. 575, op. 1, d. 3, l. 78; TsDNI KBR, f. P-112, op. 1, d. 45, l. 24, 532; TsDNI KBR, f. P-13, op. 1, d. 61, l. 17.
14 TsDNI KBR, f. P-13, op. 1, d. 61, l. 17.
15 TsDNI KBR, f. P-13, op. 1, d. 61, l. 17.
16 TsGA KBR, f. 199, op. 2, d. 18, ll. 45–6.
17 TsDNI KBR, f. P-9, op. 1, d. 57, l. 234.
18 TsGA KBR, f. 574, op. 1, d. 152, l. 23.
19 See, for example, TsDNI KBR, f. P-9, op. 1, d. 57, ll. 234–35; TsDNI KBR, f. P-112, op. 1, d. 45, l. 52; TsDNI KBR, f. P-4, op.1, d. 120, ll. 17–8; TsDNI KBR, f. P-109, op. 1, d. 83, l. 32.
20 TsGA KBR, f. 574, op. 1, d. 152, ll. 22–4; TsGA KBR, f. 585, op. 1, d. 36, l. 74; TsGA KBR, f. 199, op. 2, d. 18, ll. 27–8; TsGA KBR, f. 575, op. 1, d. 3, l. 78; TsDNI KBR, f. P-9, op. 1, d. 57, ll. 234–35; TsDNI KBR, f. P-112, op. 1, d. 45, ll. 22–4, 52; TsDNI KBR, f. P-13, op. 1, d. 61, l.17; TsDNI KBR, f. P-4, op. 1, d. 120, ll. 17–8; TsDNI KBR, f. P-78, op. 1, d. 81, ll. 1–2, 6.
21 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 167, l. 9.
22 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 167, l. 9.
23 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 167, l. 3.
24 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 167, l. 8.
25 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 167, l. 2.
26 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 167, ll. 6–7; TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 177, l. 75.
27 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op.1, d. 167, l. 5.
28 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 167, l. 6.
29 On early work to increase Kabardian representation in industry, see TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 177, ll. 1–75.
30 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 177, l. 5.
31 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 177, ll. 5, 9, 11.
32 See, for example, TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 177., ll. 3, 6, 24, 44.
33 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 177, l. 49.
34 See, for example, TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 177, ll. 3, 5, 10, 14, 20; TsGA KBR, f. 686, op. 1, d. 474, l. 64.
35 TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 177, ll. 33, 40, 44.
36 The entrance of Kabardians into lower-level positions is reflected in the reports contained in TsDNI KBR, f. P-2, op. 1, d. 177, ll. 1–75. See also, TsDNI KBR, f. P-17, op. 1, d. 65, ll. 6–7, 14–8. At a meeting of the Party aktiv of Terek District, the secretary of the raikom, Khunov, specifically criticised the directors of several local enterprises and administrative departments for ‘the mechanical replacement of cadres with workers of the native nationality without taking into account management and political skills’. See TsDNI KBR, f. P-4, op. 1, d. 140, l. 100.
37 TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 2454, ll. 1–56.
38 TsDNI KBR, f. P-728, op. 1, d. 11, ll. 44, 412–13; TsDNI KBR, f. P-109, op. 1, d. 83, ll. 32–3; TsDNI KBR, f. P-4, op. 1, d. 140, ll. 97–110; TsDNI KBR, f. P-17, op. 1, d. 65, ll. 2–18; TsDNI KBR, f. P-112, op. 1, d. 50, ll. 12–8, 44–6; TsDNI KBR, f. P-4, op. 1, d. 160, ll. 36–40; TsDNI KBR, f. P-112, op. 1, d. 65, ll. 55–6.
39 For examples of successful efforts at getting officials to attend Kabardian literacy classes, see TsDNI KBR, f. 1, op. 1, d. 2454, ll. 32. 36, 38, and TsDNI KBR, f. 112, op. 1, d. 65, l. 55.
40 See, for example, TsDNI KBR, f. P-17, op. 1, d. 65, ll. 5–6.
41 TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 2324, l. 110.
42 TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 2324, l. 112.
43 For an overview of nativisation work in the republic from March 1948 through March 1950, see TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 2454, ll. 1–56; for a general discussion of the state of nativisation in the republic by the end of 1950, see the minutes of the Twentieth Oblast’ Party Conference, TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 2324, ll. 14–5, 20, 23, 27, 29, 35–6, 48, 51–2, 77–9, 82–5, 94–5, 110, 112, 115–16.
44 TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 2324, l. 86.
45 TsDNI KBR, f. P-1, op. 1, d. 2324, l. 51.
46 ‘Usilit’ rabotu po vyrashchivaniyu natsional’nykh kadrov’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 6 February 1949, p. 1; ‘Neustanno rastit’ promyshlennye natsional’nye kadry’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 25 January 1952, p. 1; ‘Zabotlivo vyrashchivat’ natsional’nye kadry v promyshlennosti’, 4 June 1952, p. 2; ‘Preodolet’ otstavanie kabardinskoi dramaturgii’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 15 June 1952, p. 3; ‘Gotovit’ natsional’nye kadry sel’skogo khozyaistva’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 25 September 1952, p. 3; ‘Vsemerno uluchshat’ podgotovku uchitelei-kabardintsev’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 10 September 1952, p. 3.
47 See, for example, ‘Perevod deloproizvodstva na kabardinskii yazyk’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 26 January 1949, p. 1; ‘Prepodavanie russkogo yazyka v podgotovitel’nykh klassakh kabardinskikh shkol’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 5 February 1952, p. 3; ‘Prepodavanie russkogo yazyka v kabardinskoi shkole’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 15 February 1952, p. 3; ‘Za tvorcheskuyu aktivnost’ pisatelei Kabardy’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 4 January 1952, p. 2; ‘Natsoinal’nye talanty’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 1 April 1952, p. 4; ‘Za dal’neishee uluchshenie raboty uchrezhdenii iskusstv Kabardy’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 29 June 1952, p. 2; ‘Bol’she vysokoideinykh khudozhestvennykh proizvedennii!’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 5 March 1949, p. 1; ‘Sel’skaya intelligentsiya’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 15 February 1949, p. 2; ‘Nasushchnye voprosy razvitiya kabardinskoi literatury’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 13 January 1955, p. 3.
48 See, for example Berbekov (Citation1952, pp. 2–3), Kasumov (Citation1955, pp. 2–3), Kumykov (Citation1955a, pp. 2–3; Citation1955b, pp. 2–3; Citation1957, p. 3), Muzhev (Citation1955, pp. 3–4) and Berbekov (Citation1957, p. 2).
49 See, for example, TsDNI KBR, f. 1, op. 1, d. 2324, ll. 85–6; ‘V nauchno-issledovatel’skom institute’, Kabardinskaya Pravda, 1 January 1952, p. 3.
50 This is Alexander Nekirch’s (Citation1978) term for nationalities deported en masse by order of Stalin and his security chief Lavrenti Beria during World War II.
51 ‘Postanovlenie prezidiuma TsK KPSS “O vosstanovlenii natsional’noi avtonomii kalmytskogo, karachaevskogo, balkarskogo, chechenskogo i ingushskogo narodov”, 24 noyabrya 1956 g.’, in Sabanchiev (Citation2008, pp. 362–66).
52 ‘Postanovlenie prezidiuma TsK KPSS “O vosstanovlenii natsional’noi avtonomii kalmytskogo, karachaevskogo, balkarskogo, chechenskogo i ingushskogo narodov”, 24 noyabrya 1956 g.’, in Sabanchiev (Citation2008, pp. 362–66).
53 ‘Ukaz prezidiuma Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR “O preobrazovanii Kabardinskoi ASSR v Kabardino-Balkarskuyu ASSR” 9 yanvarya 1957 g.’, in Sabanchiev (Citation2008, p. 366).
54 TsDNI KBR, f. P.1, op. 2, d. 1105, ll. 141–44.
55 TsDNI KBR, f. 774, op. 2 d. 8, ll. 44–8.
56 TsDNI KBR, f. 774, op. 2 d. 8, ll. 44–8.
57 See, for example, ‘Balkarskie kolkhozy gotovyatsya k vesennemu sevu’, Kabardino-Balkarskaya Pravda, 22 March 1957, p. 1; Kazmakhov (Citation1957, pp. 2–3); ‘Trudyashchiesya nashei respubliki gostepriimno vstrechayut balkarskikh pereselentsev’, Kabardino-Balkarskaya Pravda, 6 October 1957, p. 1; Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Noveishei Istorii (hereafter RGANI), f. 5, op. 32, d. 108, ll. 139–44.
58 RGANI, f. 5, op. 32, d. 108, l. 139.
59 TsGA KBR, f. 774, op. 2, d. 16, l. 42.
60 For example, in these other cases, returnees were barred from returning to many of their ancestral villages, and the new borders often placed such villages within the borders of neighbouring nationalities and, in some cases, forced returnees to share administrative resources and political power with other nationalities (Nekirch Citation1978, pp. 144–66; Polian Citation2004, pp. 190–201; Kazenin Citation2009, pp. 116–21).
61 It would, however, become one during the national mobilisation of the 1990s (Borov Citation2006, pp. 342–70).
62 TsDNI KBR, f. 1, op. 1, d. 1816, ll. 369–70.
63 Kratkii statisticheskii sbornik Kabardino-Balkarskoi Avtonomnoi Oblasti (Nal’chik, Kabardino-Balkarskoe statisticheskoe biuro, 1925, p. 47).
64 Kratkii statisticheskii sbornik Kabardino-Balkarskoi Avtonomnoi Oblasti (Nal’chik, Kabardino-Balkarskoe statisticheskoe biuro, 1925, p. 25).
65 Narodnoe khozyaistvo KBSSR v 1990g. (Nal’chik, Kabardino-Balkarskoe respublikanskoe upravlenie statistiki, 1991, p. 54).
66 On the initial results of the Balkarisation campaign from 1957 to 1963, see TsDNI KBR, f. 1, op. 2, d. 1677, ll. 1–12.
67 Narodnoe khozyaistvo KBSSR v 1990 g. (Nal’chik, Kabardino-Balkarskoe respublikanskoe upravlenie statistiki, 1991, p. 51).
68 Narodnoe khozyaistvo KBSSR v 1990 g. (Nal’chik, Kabardino-Balkarskoe respublikanskoe upravlenie statistiki, 1991, p. 234).
69 For example, in the 1965–1966 school year, Chechens and Ingush represented 14% and 3.8% of the student body of Checheno-Ingushetia’s higher education institutions. See Statisticheskoe (Citation1971, p. 92).
70 Maremshaova (Citation2003, p. 79) claims that the Karachais and Balkars (and the other deported peoples) experienced a ‘social death’ (sotsial’naya smert’) as a result of the deportations.
71 That is not to say that individual union republics did not conduct their own nativisation campaigns in the later Soviet period, but these were more products of Moscow’s lack of interference in the internal cultural affairs of some of the republics rather than increased attention from Moscow. See, for example, Suny (Citation1993, pp. 108–10, 117–19).
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Ian Lanzillotti
Ian Lanzillotti, Assistant Professor of History, Tennessee Wesleyan University, 204 East College Street, Athens, TN 37303, USA. Email: [email protected]