China's Normative Power in Central and Eastern Europe: ‘16/17 + 1’ Cooperation as a Tale of Unfulfilled Expectations

Abstract

Normative power China (NPC) has characteristics distinct from Manners’ conception of normative power Europe (NPE). While NPE attempts to establish rules for interaction, NPC introduces practices to be co-constituted via regional platforms through a process of ‘earned recognition’. In Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), NPC’s regionalising ‘group cooperation diplomacy’ has taken the form of the ‘16/17 + 1’ cooperation framework. Using normative power theory, the article assesses, via a critical discourse analysis of speeches and interviews, how and why China’s attempts to shape practices, earn recognition and create a community of practice in CEE have met with—at best—only limited success.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 For example, Gill and Huang (2006), Wei and Zhang (2009), Hall (2010), Kearn (2011).

2 The 16 countries were four Central European countries (Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia), nine southeastern European countries (Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia & Hercegovina, Northern Macedonia and Montenegro) and three Baltic states (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia). Greece joined the platform in 2019. Lithuania left in 2021. Estonia and Latvia left in 2022.

3 For example, Long (2014), Xu (2015), Hu and Fang (2018), Hu (2019), Zang (2020).

4 According to anonymous interviews conducted in Beijing by the authors with some Chinese scholars between October 2018 and September 2019. See also Follath (2010).

5 The English term ‘win–win’ is generally translated into Chinese as shuang ying or gong ying. The former means ‘both win’, while the latter literally means ‘together win’.

6 ‘Beijing Declaration—Toward an Even Stronger China–Africa Community with a Shared Future’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 5 September 2018, available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/201809/t20180910_679540.html, accessed 22 January 2023.

7 ‘Wang Yi: President Xi Jinping Announces to Establish China–Arab States Strategic Partnership to Open a New Chapter for China–Arab States Relations’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 10 July 2018, available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/xybfs_663590/dqzzywt_663826/201807/t20180712_531147.html, accessed 22 January 2023.

8 ‘Build a Community of Shared Destiny for Common Progress’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 18 July 2014, available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/zyjh_665391/201408/t20140822_678199.html, accessed 22 January 2023.

9 ‘Li Keqiang: “Work Together to Open Up New Prospects for Win–Win Cooperation”’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 24 November 2015, available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/topics_665678/2015zt/lzlcxzdogjldrhw/201511/t20151125_704750.html, accessed 22 January 2023.

10 ‘Forging a Reliable Partnership for Win–Win Cooperation’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 8 November 2016, available at: http://english.www.gov.cn/premier/speeches/2016/11/08/content_281475486159412.htm, accessed 9 October 2021.

11 ‘China–CEE Envision New Prospects for 16+1 Cooperation’, State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 8 July 2018, available at: http://english.www.gov.cn/premier/news/2018/07/08/content_281476214018916.htm, accessed 22 January 2023.

12 ‘Full Text: Keynote Speech by Chinese President Xi Jinping at the China–CEEC Summit’, Xinhua, 9 February 2021, available at: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2021-02/09/c_139733388.htm, accessed 9 October 2021. It should also be noted that Xi used the word ‘cooperation’ no less than 61 times in the speech.

13 ‘Spotlight: China, Europe Vow to Deepen Cooperation, Promote Multilateralism in Post-epidemic Era’, Xinhua.net, 5 September 2020, available at: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-09/05/c_139344970.htm, accessed 22 January 2023.

14 ‘Xi Jinping Meets with Prime Minister Ana Brnabic of Serbia’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 4 November 2019, available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/3265_665445/3260_664742/3262_664746/201911/t20191106_578962.html, accessed 22 January 2023.

15 ‘China, Hungary See Each Other as Important Market: Hungarian FM’, Xinhua, 2 June 2021, available at: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/europe/2021-06/02/c_139985050.htm, accessed 9 October 2021.

16 ‘COSCO Investment in Piraeus Port an Example of Cooperation with Mutual Benefits: Former Greek PM’, Hellenic Shipping News, 22 March 2021, available at: https://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/cosco-investment-in-piraeus-port-an-example-of-cooperation-with-mutual-benefits-former-greek-pm/, accessed 9 October 2021.

17 ‘China, Europe Partners Put Shoulders to the Wheel’, China Daily, 9 October 2020, available at: http://www.china-ceec.org/eng/yfgk/202010/t20201016_6784080.htm, accessed 22 January 2023.

18 ‘Spotlight: China, Europe Vow to Deepen Cooperation, Promote Multilateralism in Post-epidemic Era’, Xinhua.net, 5 September 2020, available at: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-09/05/c_139344970.htm, accessed 22 January 2023.

19 ‘Wang Yi Meets with Foreign Minister George Katrougalos of Greece’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 4 March 2019, available at: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/gjhdq_665435/3265_665445/3301_664560/3303_664564/201903/t20190306_576546.html, accessed 22 January 2023.

20 ‘China, Europe Partners Put Shoulders to the Wheel’, China Daily, 9 October 2020, available at: http://www.china-ceec.org/eng/yfgk/202010/t20201016_6784080.htm, accessed 10 October 2021.

21 ‘Chinese FM Hails Joint Efforts with CEE Countries Against Pandemic’, Xinhua, 21 November 2020, available at: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-11/21/c_139533210.htm, accessed 10 October 2021.

22 ‘China–CEE Envision New Prospects for 16+1 Cooperation’, State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 8 July 2018, available at: http://english.www.gov.cn/premier/news/2018/07/08/content_281476214018916.htm, accessed 22 January 2023.

23 ‘China, Greece to Pool Wisdom for Community with Shared Future for Mankind’, Xinhua, 12 November 2019, available at: https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1169732.shtml, accessed 10 October 2021.

Additional information

Funding

The research for this article was conducted when Fangxing Qin was based at Jan Masaryk Centre for International Studies, Prague University of Economics and Business. This work was supported by the Czech Science Foundation (Grantová Agentura České Republiky—GAČR), as part of the research project ‘China's Regionalising Normative Influence in Asia and Europe’, Project No. 22-12355S.

Notes on contributors

Jeremy Garlick

Jeremy Garlick, Director, Jan Masaryk Centre for International Studies, Department of International and Diplomatic Studies, Faculty of International Relations, Prague University of Economics and Business, Winston Churchill Square 1938/4, Prague 3 130 67, Czech Republic. Email: [email protected]

Fangxing Qin

Fangxing Qin, School of European Languages and Cultures, Beijing Foreign Studies University, No 2 Xisanhuan North Road, Haidian District, Beijing, People’s Republic of China. Email: [email protected]