Heading into uncharted territory? Exploring the institutional robustness of self-regulation in the Antarctic tourism sector

Abstract

This paper analyses the main strengths and weaknesses of self-regulation in the Antarctic tourism sector. Ostrom's theory of collective action and especially the design principles for robust management of common pool resources provide the framework for this analysis. The paper notes the rapid growth and diversification of tourism in Antarctica over the past two decades. It examines why formal tourism legislation has been limited because of the complex governance structure in Antarctica. It describes the self-regulation of tourism management that occurs through the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). The success of IAATO is attributed to the high degree of organisation in the sector, largely because of the perceived benefits of membership. Continued incentives for self-organisation are needed but changing circumstances may lead tour operators to believe that IAATO membership is no longer advantageous. The paper shows that, under current conditions, the Antarctic tourism self-regulatory regime is a robust institution. However, with increasing numbers of tourists and operators the institutional structure may be weakened in the future.

Keywords:

• Antarctic tourism
• common pool resources
• institutional design principles
• self-regulation
• tourism management
• tourism regulation

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the detailed and helpful comments of three anonymous reviewers, the encouragement and support by Bernard Lane, the thoughtful comments of Bryan Storey, the expertise and insights provided by those interviewed, and the generous support of the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (Grant no. 851.20.029 and 851.20.025).

Notes

^a Interviews were carried out by the authors of this paper with the initials revealing the interviewer's identity.

1. The data presented in Figure 1 are based on estimates of the numbers of tourists visiting Antarctica from 1965 onwards. Numbers of staff and crew are not part of this figure, as these numbers have not been reported consistently. Although tourism did occur before 1965, the number of cruises and visits at that time was very small, and the beginning of the modern era of tourism is attributed commonly to the first regular Lindblad expeditions starting in 1966 (Beck, 1990). Land-based expeditions that occurred prior to 1995/1996 are not depicted in Figure 1 as information about these expeditions is very sketchy.

2. Common pool resources are natural or man-made resources characterised by high levels of subtractability and non-excludability: every unit consumed by one individual is subtracted from the resource system, and it is very difficult to exclude other users (Ostrom, 2006).

3. In this paper, (Antarctic) tour operators are defined as organisers of tourism to the Antarctic with a commercial interest; private, non-commercial expeditions are excluded.

4. Nonetheless, at some of the frequently visited sites a lining-up of vessels still occurs. Here, the visit of one operator is almost immediately followed by that of another, thus not giving wildlife time for regeneration between visits during the daytime.

5. As of April 2008, amended bylaws have come into effect. The new bylaws introduce a revised membership which includes sailing vessels with a 12-passenger capacity or less as a separate category. Furthermore, the delineation between members, associate members and affiliate members has been clarified. Finally, Article X has been added encoding operational procedures and environmental guidelines as mandatory items in the bylaws (IAATO, 2008c). For further reference, the IAATO website (www.iaato.org) provides a comprehensive overview of the bylaws and guidelines.

6. Through the Protocol, ATCPs can designate areas in the vicinity of their stations that need special protection because of their vulnerability (Antarctic Special Protected Area or ASPA) or because of special scientific interest (Sites of Special Scientific Interest or SSSI). These areas are generally off-limits to tourism.

7. So far, site-specific guidelines have been developed for the following 14 frequently visited sites in the Antarctic Peninsula region: Barrientos Island, Brown Bluff, Cuverville Island, Goudier Island, Jougla Point, Hannah Point, Neko Harbor, Paulet Island, Penguin Island, Petermann Island, Pleneau Island, Snow Hill, Turret Point, Yankee Harbour.

8. These operators provided altogether seven voyages to the Antarctic Peninsula region (M/S Discovery: 3 trips; M/S Marco Polo: 4 trips) during the 2006/2007 season and 12 voyages (M/S Discovery: 7 trips; M/S Marco Polo: 5 trips) during the 2007/2008 season. In addition to the M/S Discovery and the M/S Marco Polo, the large non-IAATO cruise vessels M/S Artigas and the M/S Astor each visited the Antarctic once in 2006/7, and IAATO nonmember Oceania Cruises took a large vessel, the M/S Insignia, with 650 passengers on a single cruise to the Antarctic in the 2007/2008 season (IAATO, 2007a, 2008d).

9. In fact, Discovery World Cruises/Voyages of Discovery have now applied for IAATO membership and have been approved as an Associate B1 member during the 2008 IAATO AGM.

10. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) implemented measures aiming at protecting the integrity of the marine environment, ensuring maritime safety, dealing with emergency response actions and safeguarding contingency planning, just to name a few examples (IMO, 2007). IMO regulation is applicable to all ship-based Antarctic tourism activities and as such has to be embraced by IAATO members and non-members that are active in ship-based tourism (Molenaar, 2005; IMO, 2007).

11. In 2003, following the example set by IAATO, ship-operators active in the Arctic have founded the Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators (AECO).