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Abstract
Insofar as numerous ecotourism destinations host indigenous communities, these sites add emphasis to sustainable tourism's cultural dimension alongside its environmental one. Especially noteworthy is the interplay between formal and informal institutions for decision-making regarding ecotourist infrastructure. Contemporary literature advocating participation seldom concerns the often-substantial role played by informal institutions, preferring to focus on formal institutions. As a result, even well-meaning formal institutions meant to encourage participation can be undermined by disregarding established informal institutions that retain contemporary relevance in governance-related matters. In this article, we redress this imbalance by analyzing six distinct projects undertaken in the Philippine mountain retreat of Sagada between 1994 and 2013, focusing on formal/informal institutional interplay in decision-making. That formal institutions do not always dominate informal ones has wider implications for initiatives designed to encourage community participation. To this end, we develop a typological theory which identifies factors affecting informal institutions' adaptations to formal ones: goodness of fit, retrofitting, decoupling and bricolage. These adaptations have policymaking implications for helping to promote indigenous people's rights to self-determination in sustainable contexts. Sagada's backdrop also provides a useful vantage point in discerning how international rights conventions filter down to local-level implementation.
在菲律宾萨加达的生态旅游者基础设施中正式和非正式决策的相关性
迄今为止, 许多生态旅游目的地成立土著社区, 这些地点更加强调了可持续旅游的文化维度和它的环境。尤其值得注意的是正式和非正式机构关于生态旅游基础设施的决策之间的相互作用。当代文学中所倡导的很少涉及非正式机构所扮演的经常实质性的稳定作用，更倾向于把重点放在正式机构。这样一来，即使是正式机构出于善意的目的鼓励参与也会因为忽视已建立的非正式机构所破坏，从而保留与治理相关事项的当代关系。在这篇文章中，我们通过分析萨加达1994年至2013年间，菲律宾的山区撤退开展的六个不同的项目来纠正这种不平衡，并强调正式与非正式机构在决策上的相互影响。正式机构并不总是支配非正式机构，这对于旨在鼓励社区积极参与行动有更广泛的影响。为此，我们开发了一个类型学理论，指出了影响非正式机构适应正式机构的因素：拟合优度，改装，退耦和拼装。这些修改在可持续背景下有助于促进土著人民进行权利自决。同时，萨加达的背景也为国际人权公约如何渗透到地方一级的执行提供了有利的制高点。
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Arnil Paras, Abigail de Leon, Florianne Relova, Levita Duhaylungsod, Karryl Ngina, Edwin Enriquez, and the three anonymous reviewers for their kind assistance with an earlier version of this paper. The usual disclaimers apply.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. UN declarations are not considered legally binding.
2. The American loan word “boondocks” referring to wild, remote places is based on the Filipino word bundok or mountain. During the American colonial period, its usage referred to the Mountain Province.
3. Unlike licensing which is mandatory, DOT accreditation is not.
4. PhilCarbon's 15 MW Sagada-Besao Wind Power Project remains under debate after being proposed in 2012 by local entrepreneur Rufino Bomas-ang as another livelihood source and a tourist attraction in itself.
5. The first author is a native speaker of Kankana-ey.
6. In the Philippines, the versatility of cell phones is enhanced by their mobile banking uses such as money transfers and retail transactions. See Yujuico (Citation2009) for an overview. Recently, phones have also been used for disbursing national conditional cash transfer (CCT) payments.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Freda K. Malogdos
Freda K. Malogdos has research interests in the dynamics of small communities and the rights of indigenous peoples. At present, she is an economic development specialist at the Philippines' National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) for the Cordillera Autonomous Region (CAR), where she performs fieldwork and research focusing on the rights and development of indigenous communities in the CAR.
Emmanuel Yujuico
Emmanuel Yujuico is a visiting lecturer at the University of Asia and the Pacific in Pasig City, Philippines and a research fellow at LSE IDEAS, a center for the study of international affairs, diplomacy and strategy in London, England. His research spans a range of development-related issues including tourism, infrastructure, migration, inclusive markets, and information and communication technologies.