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Abstract
Cameralism, one of the most important currents of economic thought in German-speaking countries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, assumes a systematic and comprehensive form in the works of Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi (1717–1771). Justi tried to ground cameralism philosophically by way of what he termed ‘political metaphysics’. This theory essentially deals with the following topics: human nature, the state, and natural law. The aim of the present paper is to analyse the key concepts of Justi's political metaphysics as well as the line of reasoning adopted by him. It thereby sheds new light on cameralism as political metaphysics.
Acknowledgements
The present study was conducted within the framework of a research project on the subject of cameralism. This project was carried out at the Chair of Political Economy at Zeppelin University in Friedrichshafen (Germany) and was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Special thanks are due to Warren Breckman, Malte Faber, Hasso Hofmann, Klaus-Gert Lutterbeck, Birger P. Priddat, Michael Quante, and two anonymous reviewers.
Notes
1 See, for instance, Engelhardt (Citation1981: 47) and Priddat (Citation1998: 19).
2 See, for instance, Justi (1759a: §6; 1759b: §2; 1760: §30).
3 ‘Cameralist science’ thus denotes one of the diciplines of cameralism.
4 See, for instance, Justi (1782: 3–20, esp. 4–7).
5 On the semantic shift undergone by the term ‘Polizei’ in Germany at the beginning of the nineteenth century, see Matsumoto (Citation1999).
6 Cf. Justi (1759b: §149). The same view is taken by J.G. Darjes, who states that cameralist science indicates how a prince's annual revenues ought to be preserved, increased, and managed (cf. Darjes 1768 (1756): §21).
7 According to Obert (Citation1992: 297), Natur und Wesen der Staaten is ‘Justi's most progressive work’.
8 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, XXIV (my emphasis). Throughout the present paper, I quote Justi's works with my own translation.
9 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, XXIV.
10 In 1727, Simon Peter Gasser was appointed to a newly founded chair in ‘Oeconomie, Policey und Cammersachen’ at Halle, and J.C. Dithmar became professor of ‘Kameral = Oeconomie und Policeywissenschaft’ at the University of Frankfurt an der Oder. See Tribe (Citation1988: 42–4).
11 The information adduced in this paragraph has been taken from Adam (Citation2006: 23–55). On Justi's life and oeuvre, see also Neue Deutsche Biographie, edited by the Historical Commission of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences (Citation1974: 747–52) and Frensdorff (Citation1970).
12 Justi's Göttingen lectures on police science were based on the treatise entitled Grundsätze der Policeywissenschaft, which was published in 1756.
13 It should be noted that many books by Justi are very similar, and that entire paragraphs figure in more than one of his treatises (see Adam Citation2006: 247–52.) This may be due to financial considerations. Justi, who lived from his writings, seems to have made more money with a new book than with a new edition of an ‘old’ one. In the case of Natur und Wesen der Staaten, there are striking parallels between this treatise and, for instance, some parts of Der Grundriß der Guten Regierung.
14 As far as Justi's biography is concerned, it may not be amiss to offer the following information. In 1765 Frederick II appointed Justi Berghauptmann (a high-ranking mining official). Three years later, however, Justi was accused of embezzling state funds. Although the charges levelled against him were probably groundless, he was imprisoned in the fortress of Küstrin, where he seems to have died in 1771. See note 11 above for the sources.
15 On the other hand, Justi was not financially independent, but lived from his writings. See note 13 above.
16 See Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §8.
17 See, for instance, Röd (1996: 111) and Adam (2006: 25–6).
18 See, for example, Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §20.
19 See, for example, Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §56 and §73.
20 See, for example, Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §8, and Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §68.
21 See, for instance, Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §46.
22 See, for example, Natur und Wesen der Staaten, ‘Vorrede’.
23 See, for example, Lutterbeck (2007). See also Obert (Citation1992: 37 and 39).
24 Engelhardt has made this case with respect to the concept of well-being. See Engelhardt (Citation1981: 37–79).
25 See Mauerer (1999). See also Mühlpfordt (Citation1986).
26 See Lutterbeck (2007).
27 See Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §5.
28 See Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §8.
29 See Natur und Wesen der Staaten, ‘Vorrede’.
30 I should like to note that my discussion of Justi's political metaphysics is based not only on Natur und Wesen der Staaten, but on other writings by Justi as well. See note 13 above.
31 See, for instance, Obert (Citation1992), Raeff (Citation1983), Sandl (Citation1999), Stollberg-Rilinger (Citation1986:105–16) and Tribe (Citation1988).
32 See, for instance, Schefold (Citation1993) and Engelhardt (Citation1981).
33 This is mainly due to the fact that Justi's attempt to trace collective well-being back to individual well-being (cf. Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §67 and Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §31) has not been sufficiently taken into account and analysed.
34 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §3.
35 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §3.
36 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §9.
37 See section 4.
38 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §2.
39 Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §32.
40 On the distinction between positive and negative freedom, see Berlin (1969).
41 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §5.
42 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §6. See also Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §68.
44 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §6.
43 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §6.
45 This follows from Justi's conception of society as cooperation (vide supra). On the conception of labour as human production see Marx (Citation1985a: esp. 462–3) and Marx (1985c).
46 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §6.
47 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §7.
48 In his doctrine of natural law, however, Justi tries to identify those ‘natural instincts’ he believes to be characteristic of human beings (vide infra section 4).
49 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §5.
50 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §4 and §7.
51 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §7.
52 See Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §11.
53 See Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §18, where Justi criticises what he takes to be Hobbes' central anthropological assumption.
54 Obert has rightly emphasised this point (see Obert Citation1992: 82–3).
55 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §180.
56 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §171.
58 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §23 and §24.
57 Here we do not take into account the possibility of the state being destroyed by external force. On this issue see Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §24.
59 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §27.
60 Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §31.
61 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §31.
62 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §42.
63 Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §33 and §77.
64 Referring back to Thomasius, Justi takes the view that ‘the majesty (Majestät) as well as all power in the state originates in the people’. He uses the term ‘supreme power’ to denote ‘the free use of the united power (Kraft) of the people’. And he goes on to explain this notion as follows: ‘The supreme power comes to exist when many human beings unite their different powers into one single power. This power is a majesty which in any case originates in and remains with the people’ (cf. Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §45 and §46).
65 The word ‘Grundverfassungen’ denotes ‘the orders of the people regarding the exercise of the supreme power’. Justi believes that ‘the entire people as such can hardly use the supreme power’; it therefore has to decide and put down how and by whom it shall be used (cf. Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §46).
66 Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §34 and §77.
67 Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §77. A discussion of the circumstances and measures Justi considers important in this respect lies outside the scope of the present paper. It may not be amiss to note, however, that he takes the number of inhabitants of a country (Bevölkerung) to be essential here.
68 Justi does say, however, that ‘a being endowed with reason’ (ein verständiges Wesen) will not be prepared to restrict his natural freedom unless he is ‘convinced that there is more to be gained from obeying another person's laws than from obeying his own laws’ (Der Grundriß einer Guten Regierung, §70). This seems to suggest that, in Justi's view, it is sufficient for a state to prove better than the state of nature when judged by the criterion of human well-being.
69 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §41.
70 This assumption receives support from the fact that the discussion of this theoretical element takes up only about half a page in Obert. See Obert (Citation1992: 265).
74 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §190.
71 See Montesquieu (Citation1995: Book 1, ch. 1). On Montesquieu's conception of law, see also Kondylis (Citation1996). In the present study we cannot consider to what extent Justi's political metaphysics was influenced by his reading of Montesquieu's De l'Esprit des lois. This question is discussed at great length in Adam's and Obert's aforementioned studies. On the reception of Montesquieu in Germany, see also Herdmann (Citation1990).
72 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §65.
73 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §173.
76 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §173.
75 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §173.
77 Epistemologically, there are two points that need to be clarified here. First, what kind of knowledge is Justi referring to when he uses the adverbial ‘very clearly’? Second, what is it that must reveal itself ‘very clearly’ to the individual? Is it (i) the fact that he is endowed with a particular type of instinct, (ii) the fact that the instinct in question is an element of human nature, or (iii) the fact that this instinct is a law of nature and consequently an entity from which natural rights can be derived?
78 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §173.
79 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §190.
80 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §190.
81 Compare, for example, the following passages: ‘God made natural law […] in order to preserve humankind’ (Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §191), and ‘The wise creator, whose intention was not only to preserve man, but to ensure the continued existence of humankind […]’ (Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §195).
82 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §178 (my emphasis).
83 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §178.
84 See Wolff (Citation1980: Sect. 1, Vol. 19, §38).
85 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §173.
86 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §192.
88 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §193.
87 Cf. Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §193.
89 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §197.
90 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §197.
91 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §197.
93 Natur und Wesen der Staaten, §197.
92 On this claim, see section 2 above.
94 See section 1 above.
95 In Obert's and Wilhelm's views, Justi can be considered a representative of early liberalism. Adam, by contrast, argues for a more differentiated stance on this issue. See the aforementioned studies by Adam and Obert, and Wilhelm (Citation1991).