A critical analysis of international organizations’ and global management consulting firms’ consensus around twenty-first century skills

Abstract

A growing number of academic studies and policy reports have identified a set of core skills considered crucial in the twenty-first century economy. This article critically examines the evidence base underpinning that ideational consensus among international organizations (IOs) and global management consulting firms (GMCFs). We collected 234 skills reports produced over the past decade by major IOs (European Commission, ILO, OECD, UNESCO, and World Bank) and GMCFs (BCG, Deloitte, Ernest and Young, KPMG, McKinsey, and PWC). We then extracted bibliographic references from each report and used the analytic technique of citation analysis to examine how the consensus around these core skills was generated in order to uncover the authoritative sources of knowledge and the pattern of ideational policy diffusion observed. Our analysis reveals substantial gaps in the evidence base used. Evidence drew largely on a few academic economists, along with strong use of grey literature, and high rates of self-citation. Given these characteristics, the consensus around twenty-first century skills appears less epistemic in nature and more like an ideational echo chamber, which raises concerns about the extent to which policymakers should rely on this evidence.

Keywords:

• Future skills
• international organizations
• global management consulting firms
• policy ideas

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Samantha Burns, Ryan Hamilton, Doris Lin, Ryan Luo, Saurav Maini, Beth Martin, Prashant Rayaprolu, Brendan Toles, and Jamie Waese for their helpful research assistance.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 See Peck (2011, p. 177) for a complete list of the characteristics of a ‘fast policy regime’.

2 We began with 318 reports but removed those reports that had no references or reports that after further perusal did not discuss the fourth industrial revolution or future skills except in passing.

Additional information

Funding

This research is funded by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) Insight grant number 435-2019-0367.

Notes on contributors

Linda A. White

Linda A. White is a Professor in the Department of Political Science and Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy, University of Toronto. Her research interests include comparative social and family policy, including education policy, early childhood education and care, and maternity/parental leave; gender and public policy; and ideas, norms and public policy development.

Sumayya Saleem

Sumayya Saleem is a doctoral student in the Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, OISE/University of Toronto. Her research focuses on understanding the knowledge base behind the future skills required in the evolving world of work.

Elizabeth Dhuey

Elizabeth Dhuey is an Associate Professor in the Department of Management, University of Toronto Scarborough. Her research focuses on the economics of education.

Michal Perlman

Michal Perlman is a Professor in the Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, OISE/University of Toronto. Her research focuses on how early environments including family and educational settings influence children’s development.