Abstract
The market for goat milk cheese has grown due to the new tendencies to consume innovative products, and the fact that it has provided a profitable alternative to cow milk cheese due to its inherent health-promoting attributes. The trends toward healthier eating have increased the interest in low-fat cheese (LFC). The objective of this study is to enable an understanding and provides a baseline of the effect of fat reduction on sensory analyses and consumer acceptability of cheeses made from raw goat milk with three different fat contents and ripened for 28 days using an artisanal method. Odour and flavour intensity was lower as fat decreased in cheese, and LFC and reduced-fat cheese (RFC) were firmer, friable, grainier, drier, acidic and less adhesive and sweet than full-fat cheese (FFC). Both judges and consumers preferred the FFC, mainly because of the greater intensity and the combination of this with excessive hardness and high masticability was likely the main cause of non-acceptance.
Introduction
In affluent developed countries, more than 95% of dairy products consumed are derived from cow's milk. Exceptions to this rule include countries of the Mediterranean basin, where ewe and goat milk and their respective products form a fundamental part of their cultural heritage (Michaelidou Citation2008). Goat milk comprises only 1.98% of the milk production in the world, with the Mediterranean area being the main producer (18%) after India (22%). According to recent literature reports, ewe and goat milk products can provide a profitable alternative to cow milk products due to their specific composition, sensory qualities and inherent health-promoting attributes (Haenlein Citation2004; Raynal-Ljutovac et al. Citation2008). In addition, goat milk has been found to contain more easily digestible fat and protein than cow's milk, as well as an increased content of vitamin A, thiamine and niacin (Haenlein Citation2001).
Currently, consumer demand for a diversification of cheese products requires the development of innovative products. Trends toward healthier eating and a consumer preference for lower fat foods have resulted in increased interest in low-fat cheeses (LFCs) (Johansen et al. Citation2011). However, consumer perception of low- and reduced-fat cheese (RFC) has not necessarily been positive and consumption is still low because of inadequate taste and texture (Childs and Drake Citation2009). To support this, the traditional characteristics of a cheese and its designation of origin have been found to be two of the most important factors influencing consumer preference in the market (Bertozzi and Panari Citation1993), although flavour remains an important role for cheese purchase and consumption (Childs and Drake Citation2009). Cheese is an important part of the economy and traditions of the Canary Islands (Spain): about 17,000 tons of goat milk cheese is produced per year, and most of these products are made with raw milk using traditional methods (Fresno et al. Citation2008). The Canary Islands have an important variety of cheeses, of which three of them are designated as being protected designation of origin (PDO): Palmero, Majorero and de Guía and Flor de Guía cheeses. As well as the caprine and forage genetic richness, the islands have an exceptional sanitary situation due to being officially free of caprine and ovine brucellosis, which allows 500 artisan producers to sell raw milk cheese with shorter than 60 days of ripening (Fresno and Álvarez Citation2007).
The sensory perception of dairy foods as flavourful and wholesome is one of the keys to their enjoyment by consumers. Due to the integral nature of sensory perception with dairy foods, measuring these aspects is the final step in many experiments or applications. A trained sensory panel is a valuable tool in understanding the aspects differentiating cheeses (Foegeding and Drake Citation2007). Texture, colour, taste, aroma and visual appearance can be used to define the sensory quality (Di Monaco et al. Citation2008).
No low-fat or reduced-fat Canary cheeses are available on the market. This study is part of a project aimed at demonstrating the effects of reducing fat in goat milk on the characteristics of fresh cheese elaborated using artisan procedures. The gross composition, texture profile and colour of artisanal raw goat cheeses from the Canary Islands that were produced with milk with different fat contents have been reported by Sánchez-Macías et al. (Citation2010), and lipolysis and proteolysis profiles of the same cheeses have shown significant differences between full-fat cheese (FFC), RFC and LFC (Sánchez-Macías et al. in press), but information about sensory characteristics or consumer acceptance has not been determined. This study enables an understanding and provides a baseline of the effect of fat reduction on the sensory profile by experts, differences and acceptability by consumers of cheeses made from raw goat milk with three different fat contents and ripened for 28 days using an artisanal method.
Materials and methods
Cheese production
Animals and cheese formulations
Raw goat milk cheeses were prepared according to traditional hand-made cheese practices common in the Canary Islands (Fresno and Álvarez Citation2007), and were produced at the dairy farm of the Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Analysis of the chemical and sensory cheese characteristics was performed at the Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias. Raw goat milk was obtained from an experimental herd of the Majorera goat dairy breed from the Animal Science Unit of Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Duplicate batches of experimental cheeses were produced and consisted of FFC, RFC and LFC ripened for 1, 7, 14 or 28 days in triplicate, resulting in a total of 72 cheese products.
Processing
The procedure to elaborate each type of cheese with raw goat milk was exactly the same, using the method described by Sánchez-Macías et al. (Citation2010), using animal rennet (Marshall rennet powder, Rhône-Poulenc Texel, Dangé-Saint-Romain, France) comprising 50% pepsin and 50% chymosin and no starter cultures were added. Curd was pressed in a cheese press (Arroyo, Santander, Spain) at 2 kPa of pressure for 1 h. After pressing, the cheeses were 10±0.1 cm in diameter and weighed 300±15 g. The cheeses for a given fat content were divided randomly into four groups of six cheeses and allowed to ripen for 1, 7, 14 or 28 days at 10–12°C and 80–85% relative humidity.
Analysis of the physicochemical properties of cheese
At 1, 7, 14 and 28 days of ripening, representative samples from each cheese were analyzed for proximal composition (fat, protein, moisture and fat in dry matter [DM]) using an Instalab 600 Product NIR Analyzer (Dickey-John Inc. Minneapolis, MN). pH was measured at three internal and three external locations for each cheese.
Sensory evaluation
Sensory analysis was performed using a variety of methods:
| 1. | Triangle tests to detect small differences that may affect the set of attributes or a particular attribute between FFC and RFC or LFC were performed at 1, 7, 14 and 28 days of ripening according to ISO 4120 (Citation2004). Fifty untrained consumers who were unaware of the experimental conditions were provided with 3 samples, 2 of which were the same. Cheese samples were coded in a uniform manner, using three-digit numbers, chosen randomly. All the possible sequences of the three products were given to the consumers, and each consumer indicated which one of the samples was different from the other two. The consumers were also asked for the attributes that they found in the different sample. Normal distribution, as an approximation for binomial distribution, was used for data analysis. Statistics were performed at the 95% confidence level. | ||||
| 2. | A preference test, according to ISO 4121 (Citation2003) at 1, 14 and 28 days of ripening was performed using 50 untrained consumers, with the goal of contributing to market research for introducing or evaluating the product. In this case a hedonic scale from 1 to 5 was used to quantify the degree of acceptance. | ||||
| 3. | A description profile was compiled using seven specialised expert assessors. The methodology for the description profile was in accordance with that described by Beródier et al. (Citation1996) for odour and flavour attributes, and texture was determined following the guidelines published by Lavanchy et al. (Citation1999); both tests were adapted for goat cheese sensory analysis as described by Fresno and Álvarez (Citation2007). Sensory panelists evaluated randomly coded cheeses ripened for 28 days. The judges cleansed their palettes between samples using unsalted crackers, Granny Smith apples and then water containing a very low level of minerals. Sensory texture terms can be separated into ‘texture with fingers’ (roughness, surface moisture and springiness) and ‘texture in mouth’ (firmness, friability, adhesiveness, solubility, moisture in mouth and granularity), as described in . The attributes sweetness, acidity, pungency, odour and flavour intensity comprised the odour and flavour analysis. In addition, each judge was allowed to describe the odour and flavour of each sample by selecting descriptors from the following list of terms: milky, vegetable, fruity, toasted, animal and floral. All evaluations were scored on a structured scale from 1 to 7 and cheeses were maintained at 20±1°C during the evaluation period. | ||||
Table 1. Standardised definitions of attributes used for the sensory profile.
The sensory analyses were performed in a special room following the instructions given by the norm ISO 8589 (Citation2007), including absence of noises and odours, good lighting, white walls, adequate temperature and humidity conditions. The individual booths were arranged next to each other on both sides of a corridor through which the randomly coded samples were given to consumers and specialised expert assessors. Samples were allowed to equilibrate at room temperature (20°C) for 1 h prior to evaluation in order to achieve optimum conditions for sensory evaluation and to obtain homogeneous cuts. The cheeses were cut into pieces of 2×2×1 cm, a size sufficient for the consumers to be able to taste the samples properly, and placed on an individual odour-free serving plate coded with three-digit random codes.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were performed using SAS, Version 9.00 (SAS Institute Inc. Cary, NC). The SAS PROC MIXED procedure for repeated measurements was used to evaluate the effect of differing fat content and ripening time on the chemical composition, sensory attributes of the sensory profile and acceptance test. Tukey's test was used to evaluate the differences between groups. The ANOVA procedure was used to compare sensory attributes.
Results and discussion
Chemical composition of cheese
shows the gross chemical composition and pH of cheeses throughout the 28 days of ripening (Sánchez-Macías et al. Citation2010). As was expected, the percentage of fat in DM was higher in FFC than in RFC or LFC at all days tested during ripening, whereas protein and moisture content was higher in LFC than in RFC and FFC. The moisture decreased in all three-cheese types throughout the study because of surface water evaporation.
Table 2. Means and standard error of the mean (SEM) of the proximal composition and external and internal pH of FFC, RFC and LFC1 at 1, 7, 14 and 28 days of ripening.
The external and internal pH was approximately 6.6 in FFC, RFC and LFC at day one of ripening. During the first and second weeks of ripening, external and internal pH values decreased in all cheese groups. At 28 days of ripening, the pH increased in RFC and LFC, likely due to the release of basic amino acids and the decomposition of NH3 and lactate (Alais Citation1985). In FFC at 28 days of ripening, the pH value was similar to that observed at 14 days of ripening. The pH increase observed at day 28 in RFC and LFC may be attributed to a concomitant decrease in the level of moisture in non-fat solids and, hence, in the lactate-to-protein ratio (Fenelon and Guinee Citation2000). Taken together, these data indicate that as the fat was reduced, the external and internal pH increased.
Sensory analysis of cheese
Triangle test
The triangle test performed revealed significant differences between FFC, and RFC or LFC concerning organoleptic characteristics at the four evaluated ripening times. The sensory attributes differentiating the RFC and LFC from FFC were as follows: (1) hardness and firmness, which were considered high; (2) flavour, which was considered acidic, with poor cheese intensity; (3) moisture content, which was considered high; and (4) colour, which had low lightness and more yellow hue. These attributes were responsible for the consumers being able to distinguish the low and reduced-fat goat artisan cheeses from its counterpart FFC. These comments are accordance with those reported by Sánchez-Macías et al. (Citation2010), who showed that fat reduction of handmade raw goat milk cheese resulted in higher fracturability, hardness, cohesiveness and masticability values in cheese at 28 days of ripening, moreover the instrumental colour analyses revealed that lightness decreases and yellow index increased as fat content was reduced in cheese.
Acceptance test
shows the results of the preference testing. As expected (Sipahioglu et al. Citation1999; Madadlou et al. Citation2005; Ltief et al. Citation2009), consumers preferred FFC, although RFC ripened for 14 and 28 days were scored slightly below FFC without significant differences. In general, cheese ripened for 14 days had better scores than cheese ripened for 1 and 28 days. Panelists listed some characteristics of each cheese sample and the results were as follows:
| 1. | FFC: at 1, 14 and 28 days, the cheese was described as having good texture, flavour and smoothness. At 14 and 28 days, it was slightly acidic, and at 28 days it was creamy. | ||||
| 2. | RFC: at 1 day, the consumers rated the cheese slightly hard and dry, gummy and an off-flavour; at 14 days, it retained the off-flavour, but had good texture and slight acidity; and at 28 days, the cheese was rated as dry, creamy and slightly acidic, with an off-flavour. In general, the consumers described RFC as intermediate between FFC and LFC. | ||||
| 3. | LFC: at 1 day, the cheese had an off-flavour and was gummy, very hard and dry; at 14 days, the cheese was described as dry, creamy, gummy, bitter, very acidic and with off-flavour; and at 28 days, the cheese was dry, gummy, bitter and acidic, with an off-flavour. | ||||
Figure 1. Least square means of the acceptability scores (rated on a 5-point category hedonic scale) of FFC, RFC and LFC at 1, 14 and 28 days of ripening.Note: FFC, full-fat cheese; RFC, reduced-fat cheese; LFC, low-fat cheese.
Drake (Citation2008) has evaluated the consumer acceptance of LFCs, and has identified various drawbacks to its use, including lack of flavour, rubbery texture, stickiness, low melt ability and consumer perception as unnatural and unappealing compared to FFCs. Childs and Drake (Citation2009) found that most of consumers are not accepting of lower fat Cheddar or mozzarella cheese when their flavour and texture are different from the full-fat version of the cheese, even if those differences are small. Conceptually, consumers were willing to sacrifice flavour and texture of cheese slightly if they were interested in having a cheese that was reduced in fat. However, reality showed that consumer interest in this option is low if flavour and texture are sacrificed.
Description profile
shows the results of the averaged scores obtained for the different descriptive sensory attributes of texture with fingers. The roughness increased during 14 days of ripening in all cheese types without significant differences between them, and only after 28 days was LFC considered to have lower rough surface than FFC and RFC. Surface moisture decreased during the ripening time in all cheeses. Although the sensory score of this attribute was higher in RFC and LFC than in FFC during the first 2 weeks of ripening, at 28 days FFC were considered to have more moisture than RFC and LFC. Springiness decreased along the experimental time, without significant differences between cheeses. Sánchez-Macías et al. (Citation2010) reported that the instrumental springiness parameter decreased during the ripening time, but instead, they found significant differences between cheeses, specifically, RFC and LFC were much less elastic than FFC. Rogers et al. (Citation2010) showed clear distinctions between full-, reduced- and LFC too, LFC being more springy.
Table 3. Means and standard error of the mean (SEM) of sensory analysis of FFC, RFC and LFC1 at 7 days of ripening: texture with fingers. Attributes were scored on a 7-point scale.
The means of the scores of the attributes of texture in mouth are summarised in . Firmness scores decreased in cheeses over the 28 days of ripening. At day 1, the scores were higher in LFC than in RFC and FFC, but after 2 weeks, RFC and LFC had similar scores, indicating that the decreasing of firmness was faster in LFC. Rogers et al. (Citation2010) reported that firmness at first-bite decreased during the first month in full-, reduced- and low-fat Cheddar cheese, which can be attributed to the higher rate of proteolysis during the first 14 days of ageing (Lawrence et al. Citation1987). Quantitative analysis of proteolysis in the same cheeses (Sánchez-Macías et al. in press) showed a general reduction in caseins as ripening progressed and the degradation rate during the experimental time decreased with lower fat contents, which is correlated with the firmness profile found in the sensory analysis. FFC had lower values for friability, and these values increased during the ripening time for FFC and RFC, while they decreased slightly in LFC. Adhesiveness scores tended to increase over the experimental time in cheese; the values were similar in all cheeses at the beginning of the ripening, but at 14 and 28 days it increased as fat content increased in cheeses. These results are in accordance with those obtained from the instrumental texture analyses (Sánchez-Macías et al. Citation2010), although during the 28 days of ripening, RFC and LFC had similar values, which were lower than those for FFC. Solubility averaged scores increased during the experimental time and FFC received the higher scores, while granularity decreased as time passed and LFC was considered the grainiest during the experiment. Panouillé et al. (Citation2011) working with dairy model gels found that those with higher protein content or lower fat content were firmer and stickier than control dairy models. Gwartney et al. (Citation2002), Brown et al. (Citation2003) and Yates and Drake (Citation2007) reported that the majority of RFCs were characterised by chewiness, hardness, firmness, fracturability and springiness, and displayed lower adhesiveness and cohesiveness.
Table 4. Means and standard error means (SEM) of sensory analysis of FFC, RFC and LFC1 at 7 days of ripening: texture in mouth. Attributes were scored on a 7-point scale.
In , the score means of the taste attributes are summarised. The saltiness attribute increased, but only at 28 days of ripening was FFC considered saltier than RFC and LFC. The increase of salty perception in the presence of fat had already been reported in cheese (Wendin et al. Citation2000; Romeih et al. Citation2002) and is attributed to a relatively higher concentration of salt in the aqueous phase (Shamil et al. Citation1992). Panouillé et al. (Citation2011) reported in dairy models that fat addition significantly increased salty perception, whereas protein addition decreased it, regardless of water content. Acid taste was detected in cheeses after two weeks of ripening, which significantly decreased at 28 days of ripening. At both times, FFC had lower scores than RFC and LFC. The acid taste scores’ evolution during the ripening time is correlated with pH values shown in , although in this case, pH values at 14 and 28 days were higher in LFC than RFC and FFC. On the other hand, averaged scores obtained for sweetness evolved in the opposite way of acid taste scores.
Table 5. Means and standard error means (SEM) of sensory analysis of FFC, RFC and LFC1 at 7 days of ripening: basic tastes. Attributes were scored on a 7-point scale.
The scores about odour and flavour are summarised in . External assessment was similar in the three cheese types at four ripening times (data not shown). Odour and flavour intensities increased during the experimental time and LFC always had the lowest scores. This perception was traduced in lower scores in odour and flavour assessments for LFC than RFC and FFC. Odour and flavour persistence scores increased with the maturation too, and FFC had higher persistence values than LFC at 14 and 28. With regard to taste and flavour, the lower intensity scores for LFC and RFC likely resulted from the lack of fat precursors. This is due to the role of fat in providing a medium for the dissolution of flavour compounds and the inhibition of certain enzymatic reactions essential for the formation of flavours (Banks Citation2004). Lowered levels of fatty acids such as butanoic and hexanoic acids and methyl ketones, as well as increased levels of other compounds, have been attributed to the atypical flavour in low-fat Cheddar cheese (Carunchia-Whetstine et al. Citation2006). They found that flavour profiles of FFC and the same FFC with the fat removed after ripening were almost identical. Yee et al. (Citation2007) suggested that supercritical fluid extraction technology can be used in the dairy industry to develop cheese products lower in fat, retaining flavour compounds that may not be typically fully developed with alternative methods of LFC processing.
Table 6. Means and standard error means (SEM) of sensory analysis of FFC, RFC and LFC1 at 7 days of ripening: odour and flavour assessments. Attributes were scored on a 7-point scale.
Total assessment scores of the three cheese types reveled that FFC was considered the best, and LFC the worst. Anyway, the scores decreased for FFC at 28 days, while for LFC and RFC the total assessments increased significantly at 28 days compared to the first two weeks of ripening.
These results were consistent with claims that LFCs are considered less acceptable to consumers, and that defects in the texture include increases in strength, hardness, dryness and granularity (Olson and Johnson Citation1990). Increased elasticity of LFC and RFC products has also been reported (Olson and Johnson Citation1990; Madadlou et al. Citation2005), but was not reproduced in the present study. These results indicate that the properties of low-fat and non-fat cheese produced using traditional artisan methods need to be improved. Significant technological advances in LFC production are available to minimise sensory and functional deficiencies (Banks Citation2004) and alternative methods that include variations in processing techniques or the inclusion of additives have been developed. Madadlou et al. (Citation2005) reported that doubling the rennet concentration in LFC improved the rheological properties and sensory impression of texture, as well as increasing meltability in Iranian white cheese. Using natural rennet (Fresno et al. Citation2006) can be another alternative to improve the quality of low-fat goat cheese. As fat is removed from the cheese milk, cheese-making procedures that are generally used for manufacturing FFC should be modified to correct the associated textural and flavour defects, including improving moisture retention and reducing acid accumulation. Fat replacers improve the sensory and functional properties of LFCs by the bulking effect associated with moisture retention and give a sense of lubricity and creaminess (Romeih et al. Citation2002), but Drake and Swanson (Citation1995) have concluded that the manufacture of acceptable cheeses with a fat reduction of up to 33% and retention of good taste and texture is commercially feasible and could be achieved without the need for fat substitutes. Different methods have been employed to accelerate cheese ripening time: elevate ripening temperatures, attenuation of started bacteria, use of adjunct cultures, addition of curd slurries, addition of exogenous enzymes and microencapsulation of enzymes (Law Citation2001), even the use of microencapsulated aminopeptidase from starters over expressed in E. coli (Azarnia et al. 2011). But in general, FFCs have always been more accepted than their counterparts that are lower in fat.
Conclusion
Fat reduction of raw goat milk to elaborate handmade cheeses using artisan methods has important effects on the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance. Odour and flavour intensity was lower as fat decreased in cheese, and LFC and RFC were firmer, friable, grainier, drier, acidic and less adhesive and sweet than FFC. Both judges and consumers preferred the FFC, mainly because of the higher intensity and the combination of this with excessive hardness and high masticability was likely the main cause of non-acceptance. To compete in local markets, the properties of low- and reduced-fat artisan cheeses must be improved; newly developed additives and cheese-making technologies must therefore be considered.
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