Lesotho's interactions with South Africa and regional organisations in Southern Africa

Abstract

Media reports alleged in late 2012 that South Africa was treating Lesotho ‘worse than … under apartheid’. To test that premise, this article contrasts Lesotho's regional and bilateral interactions during the colonial and apartheid eras with present relationships. It reviews bilateral and regional factors that impact Lesotho, emphasising Lesotho's roles in the Southern African Customs Union, the Common Monetary Area, and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) as well as diverse bilateral transactions with South Africa. Lesotho's experiences with SADC economic, political and security operations are evaluated. Whether a mutually beneficial relationship with South Africa is replacing the prior hegemonic pattern is questioned, especially after the peaceful transfer of power in 2012 to Lesotho's opposition parties. Dual citizenship, open borders, an economic union and even the remote possibility of political fusion are discussed. Finally, the article addresses how Basotho view border issues, why they have reservations about regionalism and political amalgamation, and why commitment to separate Lesotho statehood persists.

Keywords:

• Lesotho
• South Africa
• SADC
• SACU
• CMA
• regionalism

Notes

1. Tladi, C, ‘ANC regime worse than apartheid’, Lesotho Times, 11 January 2012. Tsekoa subsequently denied stating that the ‘ANC regime is worse than apartheid’. He emphasized that he was speaking only about the situation at the border posts, not the ‘the overall relations between our two countries, which remain extremely cordial and cooperative’, http://lestimes.com/?p=8082. See Tsekoa's letter to the editor published as ‘ANC not a “Regime:” Tsekoa’, Lesotho Times, 19 January 2012, http://lestimes.com/?p=8108 (accessed 20 March 2014).

2. Application to Lesotho of Deutsch's game of ‘underdog’ and Galtung's typology of dependency appear in Weisfelder, RF, ‘SADCC as a counter-dependency strategy: How much collective clout?’, in Keller EJ & LA Picard (eds), South Africa in Southern Africa: Domestic Change and International Conflict. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989, pp. 155–178, especially pp. 157–162.

3. The most thorough study of the role of the border and Basotho attitudes towards it appears in Coplan, DB, ‘A river runs through it: The meaning of the Lesotho-Free State border’, African Affairs, 100, 2001, pp. 81–116.

4. A useful introduction to Lesotho's historical trajectory is Gill, SJ, A Short History of Lesotho. Morija, Lesotho: Morija Museum & Archives, 1993.

5. Jones D, Aid and Development in Southern Africa: British Aid to Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland. London: Croom Helm, 1977, p. 175.

6. These interactions are presented in Weisfelder RF, ‘Lesotho: Changing patterns of dependence’, in Carter GM & P O'Meara (eds), Southern Africa: The Continuing Crisis (2nd edn). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1982, pp. 248–268, especially pp. 252–253, 255–256, and 265–268.

7. Geldenhuys, D, Some Foreign Policy Implications of South Africa's ‘Total National Strategy’. Braamfontein: South African Institute of International Affairs, 1981.

8. See Weisfelder RF, ‘“Peace” from the barrel of a gun: Nonaggression pacts and state terror in Southern Africa’, in Stohl M & GA Lopez (eds), Terror Beyond Endurance: The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism. New York: Greenwood, 1988, pp. 281–309.

9. South Africa, however, was not the only important factor. Plans for a military insurrection were fuelled by an abortive election, factionalism in the cabinet, efforts to place loyal BNP favourites in key Lesotho Defence Force positions, Jonathan's declining health, and the minimal legitimacy of his government.

10. The formation, objectives and prospects for SADCC are discussed in Weisfelder RF, ‘The Southern African Development Coordination Conference: A new factor in the liberation process’, in Callaghy TM (ed.), South Africa in Southern Africa. New York: Praeger, 1983, pp. 237–266.

11. Coplan DB, ‘A river runs through it: The meaning of the Lesotho–Free State border’, African Affairs, 100, 2001, pp. 81, 90.

12. UNDP, WHO, UNICEF and FAO, The Impact of Changes in South Africa on the Developmental Prospects of Lesotho. Maseru, 1995, p. 4.

13. Weisfelder RF, ‘Why Lesotho needs a distinctive diplomatic strategy, but hasn't found an appropriate format’, Africa Insight, 27, 1, 1997, pp 32–43, especially pp. 33–34.

14. Simba Makoni's reflection on South Africa's appropriate role in SADCC is noted in Weisfelder RF, ‘SADCC after apartheid’, Transafrica Forum, 8, 3, 1991, pp. 3–17, especially p. 12, and the various alternative possibilities are raised in Weisfelder RF, ‘Collective foreign policy decision-making within SADCC: Do regional objectives alter national policies?’ Africa Today, 38, 1, 1991, pp. 5–17, especially pp. 16–17.

15. Personal interviews conducted in Botswana, Lesotho and South Africa, 15 June to 2 July 2013.

16. The best contemporary analyses of interactions between Lesotho and the ‘troika’ during Letsie's coup appear in Matlosa K, ‘The recent political crisis in Lesotho and the role of external forces’, Africa Insight, 24, 2, 1994, pp. 225–229; and Sejanamane M, ‘The Lesotho crisis and regional intervention’, Southern Review, 9, 5, 1996. See also Rosenberg S and RF Weisfelder, Historical Dictionary of Lesotho (2nd edn). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013, pp. 264–268.

17. Despite some irregularities, the 1998 election was essentially free and fair with the resultant controversy spawned by the first-past-the-post election system that gave parties with almost 40% of the vote only one seat in Parliament. See the insightful analysis in Southall, Roger and Roddy Fox, ‘Lesotho's general election of 1998: Rigged or de rigeur?’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 37, 4, 1999, pp. 669–696. A longer term historical perspective appears in Weisfelder RF, ‘Why fair elections get fouled in Lesotho: A search for solutions’, The Journal of African Policy Studies, 5, 2–3, 1999, pp. 109–132.

18. The Langa Commission, ‘Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the conduct and results of the Lesotho general elections held in May 1998’, prepared for SADC and distributed in Lesotho in August 1998.

19. Makoa FK, ‘The challenges of South African military intervention in Lesotho after the 1998 elections’, Lesotho Social Science Review, 5, 1, 1999, pp. 83–109, especially pp. 98–99, 104. He does not call it a SADC intervention. The same ‘Special Issue on Lesotho's Recent Conflicts’ includes a perspective from Botswana and a very balanced final assessment. See Molomo MG, ‘External military intervention in Lesotho's recent political crisis’, pp. 133–159 and Matlosa K, ‘Conflict and conflict management: Lesotho's political crisis after the 1998 election’, pp. 163–196. See also Rosenberg S & RF Weisfelder, Historical Dictionary of Lesotho (2nd edn). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013, pp. 213–214, 417–420.

20. More complete information on the IPA appears in Rosenberg S and Weisfelder RF, Historical Dictionary of Lesotho (2nd edn). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013, pp. 188–190.

21. Detailed information explaining Lesotho's electoral system and elections appears in Rosenberg S and Weisfelder RF, Historical Dictionary of Lesotho (2nd edn). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013, pp. 132–147.

22. Ketumile M, ‘Report on Mission to Lesotho as eminent person designated by SADC’, Lesotho Times, 16 July 2009 and reprinted in Ambrose DP, Summary of Events in Lesotho, 16.3, 2009, pp. 11–12. See also Bame P, ‘Masire blames Lesotho government for unrest’, Mmegi, 23 July 2009, http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=7&dir=2009/july/thursday23 (accessed 20 March 2014). Further information on the mixed member crisis appears in Rosenberg S and Weisfelder RF, Historical Dictionary of Lesotho (2nd edn). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013, pp. 339–342.

23. Personal interview, Sephiri Motanyane, Speaker of Lesotho's National Assembly, Maseru, 18 June 2013.

24. Personal interview, Lesotho Brigadier General Maaparankoe Mahao, former head of the SADC Planning Unit for the Joint Standby Force, Gaborone, 26 June 2013.

25. Zihlangu B, ‘Troops will be deployed to DRC’, Lesotho Times, 7 February 2013, http://www.lestimes.com/?p=11380 (accessed 20 March 2014).

26. Wang J-Y with I Masha, K Shirono & L Harris, ‘The Common Monetary Area in southern Africa: Shocks, adjustment, and policy challenges’, IMF Working Paper, African Department. July 2007, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2007/wp07158.pdf (accessed 20 March 2014).

27. Wang J-Y with I Masha, K Shirono & L Harris, ‘The Common Monetary Area in southern Africa: Shocks, adjustment, and policy challenges’, IMF Working Paper, African Department. July 2007, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2007/wp07158.pdf (accessed 20 March 2014), pp. 22, 30, 38.

28. Wang J-Y with I Masha, K Shirono & L Harris, ‘The Common Monetary Area in southern Africa: Shocks, adjustment, and policy challenges’, IMF Working Paper, African Department. July 2007, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2007/wp07158.pdf (accessed 20 March 2014), pp. 39–40.

29. Grynberg R, ‘New way to cut the SACU cake: Regional economy is in for big shake-up’, Mail and Guardian, 31 January 2011, http://mg.co.za/article/2011-01-31-new-way-to-cut-the-sacu-cake (accessed 20 March 2014); and Grynberg R, ‘New knife to cut the SACU pie’, Mail and Guardian, 29 July 2011, http://mg.co.za/article/2011-07-29-new-knife-to-cut-sacu-pie

30. Zibi S, ‘Southern African Customs Union: In danger of collapse’, Financial Mail, 22 August 2013, http://www.financialmail.co.za/fm/Features/2013/08/22/southern-african-customs-union-in-danger-of-collapse. An extensive examination of post-apartheid SACU tranformations concluded, possibly prematurely, that South Africa had moved towards ‘a benevolent form of engagement’. See Alden C & M Soko, ‘South Africa's economic relations with Africa: Hegemony and its discontents’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 43, 3, 2005, pp. 367–392, especially p. 373.

31. Confidential personal interview, Lesotho Ministry of Finance, Maseru, 19 June 2013.

32. Zihlangu B, ‘Thabane appointed SACU Chair’, Lesotho Times, 17 April 2013, http://www.lestimes.com/?p=11907 (accessed 20 March 2014).

33. Sandrey R, A Matlanyane & D Maleleka, ‘Trade liberalisation: What exactly does it mean for Lesotho?’ Paper prepared for the Ninth Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 15–17 June 2006, p. 10, https://www.gtap.agecon.purdue.edu/resources/download/2657.pdf (accessed 20 March 2014).

34. Wang J-Y with I Masha, K Shirono & L Harris, ‘The Common Monetary Area in southern Africa: Shocks, adjustment, and policy challenges’, IMF Working Paper, African Department. July 2007, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2007/wp07158.pdf (accessed 20 March 2014), pp. 2, 22.

35. Confidential personal interview, Lesotho Ministry of Finance, Maseru, 19 June 2013.

36. Canales-Kriljenko JI, Gwenhamo F & Thomas S, ‘Inward and outward spillovers in the SACU Area’, IMF Working Paper, International Monetary Fund, 2013, p. 20, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2013/wp1331.pdf. Another evaluation suggested that this analysis ‘underplayed’ disadvantages faced by the weaker SACU members. See Flanagan G, ‘Friends in high places: Benefits and costs of SACU members'economic ties with South Africa’, Consultancy Africa Intelligence website, 3 June 2013, http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1303:friends-in-high-places-benefits-and-costs-of-sacu-members-economic-ties-with-south-africa&catid=57:africa-watch-discussion-papers&Itemid=263 (accessed 20 March 2014).

37. Cobbe J, ‘Lesotho: What will happen after apartheid?’ Africa Today, 38, 1, 1991, pp. 18–32.

38. Confidential personal interview, Lesotho Foreign Ministry, Maseru, 20 June 2013 and ‘Lesotho citizens affect F State budgets’, News 24, 30 August 2011, http://www.allvoices.com/news/10202199-lesotho-citizens-affect-f-state-budgets (accessed 20 March 2014).

39. Coplan DB, ‘Customs at customs: Creating “crime” at the Lesotho–South Africa border’, unpublished draft, p. 7.

40. Tladi C, ‘Water deal irks Lesotho's new rulers’, Mail and Guardian, 7 December 2012, http://mg.co.za/article/2012-12-07-00-water-deal-irks-lesothos-new-rulers (accessed 20 March 2014). This project is described in further information on the mixed member proportional crisis in Rosenberg S and Weisfelder RF, Historical Dictionary of Lesotho (2nd edn). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013, pp. 246–251.

41. Mpaki B, ‘Thahane defends Botswana water deal’, Public Eye, 15 March 2013, publiceye.co.ls/?p=1652

42. Much of the material on Basotho attitudes toward borders and South Africa derives from David Coplan's analyses. Data gathered for the African Peer Review Mechanism's 2008 report also found that a substantial majority of Lesotho's citizens support dual citizenship and free movement between the two countries.

43. Reproduced in Weisfelder RF, ‘Lesotho and the inner periphery in the new South Africa’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 4, 1992, pp. 667–668.

44. Detailed information on all three groups appears in Rosenberg S and Weisfelder RF, Historical Dictionary of Lesotho (2nd edn). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2013, pp. 26–27, 256, 437–439.

45. Coplan DB, ‘A river runs through it: The meaning of the Lesotho-Free State border’, African Affairs, 100, 2001, p. 111.

46. Coplan DB, ‘Customs at customs: Creating “crime” at the Lesotho–South Africa border’, unpublished draft, p. 8.

47. Coplan DB, ‘First meets third: Analyzing inequality along the US–Mexico and South Africa–Lesotho borders’, Journal of Borderlands Studies, 25, 2, 2010, pp. 61–62.

48. Coplan DB, ‘Customs at customs: Creating “crime” at the Lesotho–South Africa border’, unpublished draft, p. 2.

49. Evaluation based on conversations in Lesotho, 17–21 June 2013.

50. Koloi B, ‘SA catches Basotho off-guard’, Lesotho Times, 10 January 2014, http://lestimes.com/?p=14979 (accessed 20 March 2014).

51. Zihlangu B, ‘SA says law not targeted at Basotho‘, Lesotho Times, 17 January 2013, http://www.lestimes.com/?p=11240 (accessed 20 March 2014).

52. ‘SA Home Affairs delegation in Lesotho’, Lesotho Times, 21 February 2013, http://www.lestimes.com/?p=11504 (accessed 20 March 2014).

53. Ntaote B, ‘SA reassures dual citizenship holders’, Public Eye, 25 February 2013, http://publiceye.co.ls/?p=1366 (accessed 20 March 2014).

54. Confidential personal interview, Lesotho Foreign Ministry, Maseru, 20 June 2013.

55. Motsoeli N, ‘Deportees say they were abused in SA’. Lesotho Times, 23 January 2014, http://lestimes.com/?p=15207 (accessed 20 March 2014).