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ABSTRACT
Burkina Faso and Taiwan restored official relations in 1994, after which Taipei's aid has been generous. Taiwan's approach to official development assistance has remained largely traditional, closely linking its public diplomacy to its foreign policy objectives. Trade between both countries has remained very modest. In the same period, because of mainland China's rise and active strategy of ‘going out’, Burkina Faso has developed a robust trade and business relationship with China. As a result, the pull to establish official ties with China (and thus end ties with Taiwan) has become a domestic political issue. After the ousting of President Blaise Compaoré in 2014, a failed coup and then the return to democracy as seen in the November 2015 elections, this debate has become more public. While Burkina Faso has remained faithful to Taiwan and continues to publicly appreciate its assistance, there is no certainty that the political values that both Burkina Faso and Taiwan share will prevent a Burkinabe move towards China.
Note on contributor
Jean-Pierre Cabestan is Professor and Head, Department of Government and International Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University. He started in 2011 to concentrate on China–Africa relations and China's influence in Africa and has published several articles on this subject. This research was funded by the Research Grant Council of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (GRF no. HKBU 12400314).
Interviews
Interview 1: Hsu Yi-yin, Taiwanese agriculture engineer, graduated from Ping-tung Science and Technology University (屏東科技大學), Tintilou, 5 February 2016.
Interview 2: Paul Teng, Project Chief, Biomedical Engineering Advisor, National Hospital Blaise Compaore Support Project, Tengadogo, 4 February 2016.
Interview 3: Bruno Shen Cheng-hong, ROC Ambassador to Burkina Faso, 2 and 4 February 2016.
Interview 4: Emilie Shao Yung-chieh, First Secretary, ROC Embassy to Burkina Faso, 4 and 5 February 2016.
Interview 5: Peng Ching-tung, leader of the Taiwanese mission, Centre de formation professionelle de référence de Ziniaré, 4 February 2016.
Interview 6: Marc Rubin, Country Director, UNICEF Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou, 1 and 4 February 2016.
Interview 7: Dr. Huang Chi-lin, Head, ROC (Taiwan) Medical Mission, Koudougou Hospital, 5 February 2016.
Interview 8: Western diplomat posted in Burkina Faso, 1 February 2016.
Interview 9: Chiang Cheng-chi, Director of the Chinese Language Teaching Promotion Centre, 4 February 2016.
Interview 10: Tomoko Shibuya, Chief, Education Programme, UNICEF Burkina Faso, 1 June 2016.
Interview 11: Isidore Bougouma, Chargé de mission, Service de coopération, ROC Embassy to Burkina Faso, 9 June 2016.
Interview 12: Szwei Chen, Training Counsellor, National Hospital Blaise Compaoré Support Project, Tengadogo, 20 June 2016.
Notes
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7. On the various forms of development assistance and cooperation, cf. Campbell B, JJ Gabas, D Pesche & V Ribier (eds) Les transformations des politiques de coopération. Secteurs agricoles et miniers au Canada et en France. Paris: Karthala, 2016. Alexander C, ‘Public diplomacy and the diplomatic truce: Taiwan and the People’ s Republic of China (PRC) in El Salvador’, Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 7, 2011, pp. 271–88.
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9. Taylor I, ‘Taiwan's foreign policy in Africa’, Journal of Contemporary China, 11.30, 2002, p. 130.
10. Alexander C, ‘Taiwan's public diplomacy’, in Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Taiwan. London: Routledge, 2016, p. 546.
11. Kuik CC, ‘How do weaker states hedge? Unpacking ASEAN states’ alignment behavior towards China’, Journal of Contemporary China, 25.100, 2016, pp. 500–14.
12. Womack B, China Among Unequals: Asymmetric Foreign Relationships in Asia. New Jersey: World Scientific, 2010; Brooks SG & WC Wohlforth, ‘The rise and fall of great powers in the twenty-first century. China's rise and the fate of America's global position’, International Security, 40.3, 2015/2016, pp. 7–53.
13. Shinn DH & J Eisenman, China and Africa: A Century of Engagement. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, p. 247.
14. Cf. the website that still supports Sankara, http://www.capitainethomassankara.net/pages_ang/sankara_chronology.html (accessed 19 May 2016).
15. Alexander C, ‘Taiwan's public diplomacy’, in Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Taiwan. London: Routledge, 2016, p. 551.
16. Burkina Faso's imports and exports from Taiwan and China, http://www.trademap.org/Bilateral_TS.aspx
17. Khan Mohammad G, ‘The Chinese presence in Burkina Faso: A Sino-African cooperation from below’, Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 43.1, 2014, pp. 71–101.
18. Kalissani C, ‘Agriculture: un fils de producteur raconte la vallée du Kou’, Lefaso.net, 3 October 2012, http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article50560 (accessed 23 May 2016).
19. According to Xavier Aurégan, from 1994 to 2010, Taiwan's assistance to Burkina Faso amounted to 256 million euros, cf. Aurégan X, ‘Le Burkina Faso et les “deux Chines”’, Outre-Terre, 30.4, 2011, p. 384.
20. International Cooperation and Development Report 2014, Taipei, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan), 16 April 2015, p. 6, http://www.mofa.gov.tw/Upload/RelFile/17/262/f7a8056d-26f6-4fdf-80be-c2963619f7de.pdf (accessed 24 June 2016); Atkinson J, ‘Aid in Taiwan's foreign Policy: Putting Ma Ying-jeou's aid reforms in historical perspective’, The Pacific Review, 27.3, 2014, p. 424, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2014.909524
21. Aurégan X, ‘Le Burkina Faso et les “deux Chines”’, Outre-Terre, 30.4, 2011, p. 383.
22. ‘L’activité du groupe Agence Française de Développement au Burkina Faso’, Fiche pays, AFD, 2 February 2016.
23. 國際合作發展基金會, 國合會, guoji hezuo fazhan jijinhui or guohehui.
24. ICFD annual reports can be found here: http://www.icdf.org.tw/mp.asp?mp=2; Alexander C, ‘Development assistance and communication: The case of the Taiwan International Cooperation and Development Fund’, Global Governance, 21, 2015, pp. 119–39.
25. IUCN, The Global Water Initiative and International Institute for Environment and Development, Etat des lieux autour du barrage de Bagré, rapport final. Ouagadougou: Initiatives Conseil International, October 2010, https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/etat_des_lieux_autour_du_barrage_de_bagre_au_burkina_faso.pdf (accessed 26 May 2016).
26. Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, p. 12. This source provides contradictory figures regarding the amount of hectares developed by the Taiwanese cooperation.
27. This specialist is attached to Bagrépôle, another World Bank project launched in 2011 and aimed at increasing economic activities in the area, http://www.banquemondiale.org/projects/P119662/burkina-faso-bagre-growth-pole-project?lang=fr (accessed 26 May 2016).
28. Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, p. 12.
29. Productivity reportedly reached 4 tons/ha in Bagré and 2–3 tons/ha in the rain-fed paddy fields, as opposed to 1 ton/ha or even less on other farms (Interview 1). Most rice in Burkina is cultivated in lowlands (70%) that yield very little (43% of the national production), cf. Easypol (FAO), Analyse de la compétitivité de la filière riz local au Burkina Faso, Rapport provisoire. Ouagadougou: Ministère de l’agriculture de l’hydraulique et des ressources halieutiques, Secrétariat général, Direction des études et de la planification (DEP), October 2009, http://www.fao.org/docs/up/easypol/938/analyse-filiere-riz-local-burkina-faso_131fr.pdf
30. Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, p. 20.
31. Cf. also Te Chang Construction website, http://www.tccon.com.tw/eng/about.html (accessed 21 June 2016).
32. Ladji Bama Y, ‘Hôpital national Blaise Compaore: les raisons d’une agonie prématurée’, Le Faso.net, 20 August 2012, http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article49702 (accessed 30 May 2016).
33. Te Chang Construction does not refer to a bid either, http://www.tccon.com.tw/eng/about05.html (accessed 21 June 2016).
34. ‘Burkina: L’Hôpital Blaise Compaoré érigé en Centre hospitalier universitaire’, Burkina24, 19 February 2015, http://www.burkina24.com/2015/02/19/burkina-lhopital-blaise-compaore-erige-en-centre-hospitalier-universitaire/ (accessed 30 May 2016). Blaise Compaore's bronze statue located outside of the hospital’ main entrance was covered with a black plastic bag when I visited the place in February 2016.
35. Ladji Bama Y, ‘Hôpital national Blaise Compaore: Les raisons d’une agonie prématurée’, Le Faso.net, 20 August 2012, http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article49702 (accessed 30 May 2016).
36. According to the Taiwanese Team, it was the Burkinabe side which chose the Puli Hospital as management partner when visiting it in February 2009. Its size is similar (580 beds; Interview 2).
37. Headed by Pau Teng Chun-you who has been since 2009 in Burkina Faso, this team also includes a hospital administrator, Chen Szwei, especially in charge of training personnel on site. This Taiwanese support team operates according to a bilateral ‘university hospital management technical assistance project’ (or contract) renewed every two years. It represents a cost of 600,000 euros per year for Taiwan's ICDF (Interviews 2 and 12).
38. In addition, since 1994 Taiwan has distributed scholarships to 62 doctors and five hospital managers from Burkina Faso (Interview 3).
39. Also called demonstration based vocational training centre and industrial vocational training centre, respectively, cf. 2015 International Cooperation and Development Fund Annual Report, Taipei, ICDF, p. 26, http://www.icdf.org.tw/public/Attachment/66111162215.pdf (accessed 1 June 2016).
40. The Taiwanese subvention (6.7 billion CFA) has financed the construction (4.4 billion CFA) and the equipment (2.3 billion CFA) of the Ziniaré centre, cf. Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, p. 8. It was built by a private Taiwanese infrastructure company called Overseas Investment and Development Corp., specialising in completing turn-key constructions in developing countries, cf. Doh KM, ‘Séjour du Premier ministre à Taïwan: Visite d’entreprises “dignes d’intérêt” pour le Burkina Faso’, http://www.sidwaya.bf/m-11438-sejour-du-premier-ministre-a-taiwan-visite-d-entreprises-dignes-d-interet-pour-le-burkina-faso-.html (accessed 1 June 2016).
41. In Ziniaré and Bobo: Brevet de Qualification Professionnelle, Brevet Professionnel de Technicien (and Brevet Professionnel de Technicien Spécialisé. In the other centres, lower diplomas are delivered: Certificat de qualification professionnelle de base and Certificat de qualification professionnelle. In the professional high schools, Certificats d’Aptitude Professionelle, Brevets d’Etudes Professionnelles and Professional Baccalaureats are delivered; cf. http://www.prfp.gov.bf/ (accessed 20 June 2016).
42. At the end of 2015, the Ziniare centre had already completed three pre-employment training classes with a total of 864 graduates. The employment rates of the first two classes were 70 and 77%, respectively, 2015 International Cooperation and Development Fund Annual Report, Taipei, ICDF, p. 26, http://www.icdf.org.tw/public/Attachment/66111162215.pdf (accessed 1 June 2016).
43. Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, p. 30.
44. Yoda C, Ambassadeur du Burkina à Taipei, ‘Le modèle taïwanais est imitable chez nous, j’en suis sure’, L’Observateur, 2 June 2016, http://www.lobservateur.bf/index.php/politique/item/5243-celine-yoda-ambassadeur-du-burkina-a-taipei-le-modele-taiwanais-est-imitable-chez-nous-j-en-suis-sure (accessed 10 June 2016).
45. Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, p. 23.
46. https://twitter.com/unicef_burkina/status/659869299880894467 (accessed 1 June 2016). The UNICEF also claims having distributed some 15,200 lamps in 2015 (as against 5198 in 2014) without indicating their origin, cf. UNICEF Annual Report 2015 Burkina Faso, no date, p. 8, http://www.unicef.org/about/annualreport/files/Burkina_Faso_2015_COAR.pdf and http://www.unicef.org/about/annualreport/files/Burkina_Faso_Annual_Report_2014.pdf (accessed 1 June 2016).
47. Balima JT, ‘Energie solaire: la solution Speedtech Energy en marche au Burkina’, Le Faso.net, 12 July 2013, http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article55052
48. For example, Exclusive Solar, a subsidiary of China's New Era Investment Holdings (Pty) Ltd, initiated the Bright Future Plan to promote through donations the use of solar energy products in Namibia, especially in rural areas. Based in South Africa, it claims to manufacture its solar panels in this country, cf. ‘Chinese company donates solar products to Namibia’, Global Times, 21 November 2014, http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/893028.shtml (accessed 26 June 2016); likewise, Chinese company Sino Africa Medical Devices set up a plant in Uganda to manufacture long-lasting insecticide-treated mosquito nets. At the commissioning of the factory, it donated mosquito nets, cf. Ssekika E, ‘Chinese firm sets up factory to manufacture mosquito nets’, The Observer, 13 April 2016, http://www.observer.ug/business/38-business/43642-chinese-firm-sets-up-factory-to-manufacture-mosquito-nets (accessed 26 June 2016).
49. http://www.sidwaya.bf/m-11438-sejour-du-premier-ministre-a-taiwan-visite-d-entreprises-dignes-d-interet-pour-le-burkina-faso-.html (accessed 1 June 2016).
50. Burkina Faso state company SONABEL contributed only up to 95 million CFA ($190,000) to it. DNF, 15 October 2014, http://www.dnfburkina.com/actualites/conseil-des-ministres-du-15-octobre-deux-projets-de-lois-lun-contre-la-corruption-et-lautre-contre-la-peine-de-mort-adoptes
51. Koeta O, ‘Eau potable au Burkina: Ziga II est lancé!’ http://www.burkina24.com/2015/12/08/eau-potable-au-burkina-ziga-ii-est-lance/ (accessed 1 June 2016).
52. Taiwan Info, 7 December 2016, Taiwan Info service@engepaper.www.gov.tw (accessed 9 December 2016).
53. Cf. for example, on Burkina Faso (but also Mali and Uganda), Maegaard P, Light Over Africa, Solar Future Plan for Solar Lighting in 10,000 villages and schools in Three African Countries, 18 September 2015. Denmark: Danish Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, http://www.folkecenter.dk/mediafiles/folkecenter/pdf/PM-solarFUTURE-18Sept2015-Ver-3.pdf
54. Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, pp. 72, 36, 40.
55. Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, pp. 64, 66.
56. Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, p. 34.
57. Diallo M, ‘Palais de la jeunesse et de la culture Jean-Pierre Guingané de Ouagadougou: Un joyau à la hauteur de la capitale de la culture africaine’, Le Faso.net, 17 June 2011, http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article42590 (accessed 22 June 2016).
58. Particularly of the Paratroopers Instruction Centre (Centre d’Instruction des Troupes Aéroportées, CITAP) and the 25th Paratrooper Commando Regiment (25ème Régiment Parachutiste Commando), Ambassade de la République de Chine au Burkina Faso, Burkina Fao – République de Chine (Taïwan), 20 ans d’amitié et de solidarité et de nouvelles perspectives, 1994–2014. Ouagadougou: Les Editions Lefaso, 2015, p. 26.
59. ‘Simon Compaoré et ses sept “Pick Up” à l’Armée’, Le Faso.net, 11 May 2016, http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article71056 (accessed 20 June 2016).
60. Ambassade du Burkina Faso à Taiwan, ‘Renforcement de la coopération militaire entre le Burkina Faso et la République de Chine (Taiwan): La mission militaire du Burkina Faso est ouverte’, 13 March 2013, http://ambaburkina-tw.org/spip.php?article93 (accessed 20 June 2016).
61. Khan Mohammad G, ‘The Chinese presence in Burkina Faso: A Sino-African cooperation from below’, Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 43.1, 2014, p. 91.
62. Shinn DH and J Eisenman, China and Africa: A Century of Engagement. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, p. 248.
63. Cf. http://www.cci.bf/?q=fr/search/node/Taiwan (accessed 20 June 2016).
64. A total of 449 participants as well as 175 Burkinabe and 203 foreign enterprises from 22 countries participated in this forum. Ouédraogo N, ‘Pari Gagné pour Africallia 2016’, Le Faso.net, 11 March 2016, http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article70038 (accessed 21 June 2016).
65. That was in particular the case when the author visited Burkina in January–February 2016.
66. Djarra B and J Hsiao, ‘The entrepreneurial spirit of Taiwanese in Burkina Faso’, The Microtheme Review, 3.9, 2014, pp. 197–204.
67. ‘Coopération Burkina-Taiwan: “Le domaine des échanges commerciaux est notre faiblesse”, Shen, Cheng-Hong, ambassadeur de la République de Taiwan’ (interview with Taiwan's Ambassador to Burkina Faso), L’Economiste du Faso, 24 October 2014, http://www.leconomistedufaso.bf/2014/10/24/cooperation-burkina-taiwan-le-domaine-des-echanges-commerciaux-est-notre-faiblesse-shen-cheng-hong-ambassadeur-de-la-republique-de-taiwan/ (accessed 21 June 2016).
68. ‘Au Burkina, le sorgho rouge s’invite à l’apéritif’, Commodafrica, 5 January 2010, http://www.commodafrica.com/05-01-2010-au-burkina-le-sorgho-rouge-sinvite-laperitif (accessed 21 June 2016).
69. Abdias Cyprien Sawadogo, ‘Transformation du sorgho rouge en alcool: La commercialisation du spirigho, officiellement lancée’, le Faso.net, 26 October 2010, http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article39133 (accessed 21 June 2016).
70. ‘Coopération Burkina-Taiwan: “Le domaine des échanges commerciaux est notre faiblesse”, Shen, Cheng-Hong, ambassadeur de la République de Taiwan’ (interview with Taiwan's Ambassador to Burkina Faso), L’Economiste du Faso, 24 October 2014, http://www.leconomistedufaso.bf/2014/10/24/cooperation-burkina-taiwan-le-domaine-des-echanges-commerciaux-est-notre-faiblesse-shen-cheng-hong-ambassadeur-de-la-republique-de-taiwan/ (accessed 21 June 2016).
71. China's cotton imports dropped to their lowest in at least 9 years in 2015 after Beijing reduced the availability of low-tariff import quotas to boost consumption of domestic supplies, Patton D, ‘UPDATE 1-China 2015 cotton imports hit multi-year low, to drop more in 2016’, Reuters, 20 January 2015, http://in.reuters.com/article/china-cotton-imports-idINL3N1542EN (accessed 22 June 2016).
72. The Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC), http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/bfa/#Exports (accessed 23 June 2016).
73. And 101 million out of 116 million exports according to OEC data, http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/bfa/chn/show/2014/ (accessed 23 June 2016).
74. Sawadogo B, TJ Nana, MH Natama, F Bama, E Tapsoba & K Zerbo, ‘Impact de l’expansion économique et commerciale de la Chine sur la croissance et l’emploi au Burkina Faso: une analyse en équilibre général calculable’. Ouagadougou: Partnership for Economic Policy Working Paper, 2015-03, January 2015.
75. For instance, in 2012, these three companies unsuccessfully bid for an AFD-financed rehabilitation project of the road from Koupela to the Togolese border, cf. http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Procurement/Project-related-Procurement/Burkina_Faso_-_Projet_de_r%C3%A9habilitation_de_routes_et_de_facilitation_du_transport_sur_le_corridor_CU9_-_Koup%C3%A9la-Tenkodogo-Bittou-Cinkans%C3%A9-fronti%C3%A8re_du_Togo_et_de_la_bretelle_de_Mogand%C3%A9_-_LOT_3_-_Attribution_de_march%C3%A9s.pdf (accessed 22 June 2016).
76. ‘Burkina Faso: Situation à Rood Woko – Priorité au dialogue et à la concertation’, Allafrica, 2 December 2009, allafrica.com/stories/200912220588.html (accessed 22 June 2016).
77. CGC Int, ‘LOT6.5 cast iron pipelines constructed for Bourkina ZIGA water supply project’, http://cgcint.com/index.php/en/news/co-news/co-news-s/499-lot6-5-cast-iron-pipelines-constructed-for-bourkina-ziga-water-supply-project (accessed 22 June 2016).
78. Khan Mohammad G, ‘The Chinese presence in Burkina Faso: A Sino-African cooperation from below’, Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 43.1, 2014, pp. 77–83.
79. Chinese nationals’ growing presence in Burkina Faso has compelled Beijing to show concern for the unrest against Compaoré, cf. ‘China calls for order in Burkina Faso’, China Daily, 4 November 2014, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2014-11/04/content_18867005.htm (accessed 19 May 2016).
80. Kane M, ‘Burkina Faso–Taiwan relations, post-Blaise compaore’, International Policy Digest, 26 May 2015, http://intpolicydigest.org/2015/05/26/burkina-faso-taiwan-relations-post-blaise-compaore/ (accessed 1 June 2016).
81. Sy had also met Ambassador Shen in January and asked him to provide the NTC with computer equipment, Le Faso.net, 8 January 2015, http://m.lefaso.net/spip.php?article62662 (accessed 23 June 2016).
82. Belemviré M, ‘Coopération Burkina–Chine Taïwan: l’ambassadeur Shen Cheng Hong chez Chériff Sy’, Les Echos du Faso, 17 april 2015, http://lesechosdufaso.net/cooperation-burkina-chine-taiwan-lambassadeur-shen-cheng-hong-chez-cheriff-sy/ (accessed 23 June 2016).
83. ‘Le Premier ministre du Burkina Faso en visite à Taiwan’, Taiwan Info, 28 June 2015, http://taiwaninfo.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=231846&ctNode=1999; Abga TA, ‘Burkina Faso–République de Chine Taïwan: sur les traces du sésame burkinabè’, Sidwaya, 25 June 2015, http://www.sidwaya.bf/m-6707-burkina-faso-republique-de-chine-taiwan-sur-les-traces-du-sesame-burkinabe.html (accessed 23 June 2016).
84. Yen C, ‘Taiwan wary of Burkina Faso's political turmoil’, Centre for Chinese Studies, 12 October 2015, http://www.ccs.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/CCS_Commentary_Taiwan_Wary_Yen_12-October-2015.pdf (accessed 1 June 2016).
85. In Burkina Faso, the US has a Special Operations Forces Liaison Element Team, a Joint Special Operations Air Detachment and the Trans-Sahara Short Take-Off and Landing Airlift Support initiative which facilitates ‘high-risk activities’ carried out by elite forces from Joint Special Operations Task Force–Trans Sahara, The Nation, 17 November 2015, https://www.thenation.com/article/the-us-militarys-best-kept-secret/ (accessed 25 November 2016).
86. ‘L’UNIR/ PS a accepté l’offre d’alliance du MPP’, Le Faso.net, 23 December 2015, http://lefaso.net/spip.php?article68762 (accessed 23 June 2016).
87. http://www.taiwanembassy.org/BF/ct.asp?xItem=699287&ctNode=9875&mp=416; Radio Taiwan International, 18 April 2016, http://english.rti.org.tw/m/news/?recordId=45811 (accessed 23 June 2016).
88. L’émergent, 28 June 2015, http://www.lemergent.net/?BURKINA-TAIPEH-OU-PEKIN (accessed 23 June 2016). However, some academics are also in favour of a recognition of the PRC, cf. for example the ‘open letter’ sent by sociologist Issouf Diawara, former executive of the Burkina Faso students in France, to Roch on 12 May 2016, ‘Lettre ouverte à Roch: il faut renouer avec Pékin’, L’émergent, 18 May 2016, http://www.lemergent.net/?LETTRE-OUVERTE-A-ROCH-IL-FAUT
89. ‘African nations without diplomatic ties with China invited as observers to Beijing summit’, The State Council, The People's Republic of China, 18 October 2006, http://www.gov.cn/misc/2006-10/18/content_417123.htm (accessed 26 June 2016); in December 2015, Burkina Faso was the only African country with Swaziland not to attend, cf. Department of International Relations and Cooperation, Republic of South Africa, http://www.dirco.gov.za/docs/2015pq/pq483.htm (accessed 26 June 2016).
90. Doh KM, ‘Séjour du Premier ministre à Taïwan: Visite d’entreprises “dignes d’intérêt” pour le Burkina Faso’, http://www.sidwaya.bf/m-11438-sejour-du-premier-ministre-a-taiwan-visite-d-entreprises-dignes-d-interet-pour-le-burkina-faso-.html (accessed 1 June 2016).
92. http://www.taiwanembassy.org/bf_fr/post/3829.html (accessed 25 November 2016).
93. Alexander C, China and Taiwan in Central America, Engaging Foreign Publics in Diplomacy. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2014; Alexander C, ‘Taiwan's public diplomacy’, in Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Taiwan. London: Routledge, 2016, pp. 552–5.
94. Taylor I, ‘Taiwan's foreign policy in Africa’, Journal of Contemporary China, 11.30, 2002, p. 130.
95. Campbell B, JJ Gabas, D Pesche & V Ribier (eds) Les transformations des politiques de coopération. Secteurs agricoles et miniers au Canada et en France. Paris: Karthala, 2016.
96. Public–private partnership is already part of Taiwan's ODA objectives, particularly in the health sector, but only a few such cases have been identified, in Burkina Faso as elsewhere, cf. 2015 International Cooperation and Development Fund Annual Report, Taipei, ICDF, pp. 22–4, http://www.icdf.org.tw/public/Attachment/66111162215.pdf (accessed 1 June 2016).
97. On Taiwan soft power, cf. deLisle J, ‘Taiwan and soft power: Contending with China and seeking security’, in Cabestan JP & J deLisle (eds) Political Changes in Taiwan under Ma Ying-jeou, Partisan Conflicts, Policy Choices, Exernal Contraints and Security Challenges. Abingdon: Routledge, 2015, pp. 265–86.