From rebels to politicians: Explaining the transformation of the RCD-Goma and the MLC in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

ABSTRACT

This article analyses the transformation of two former Congolese rebel groups, namely the Congolese Rally for Democracy–Goma (RCD-Goma) and the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), into political parties following the conclusion of the Second Congo War (1998–2003) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It is argued that three sets of factors influenced the process of the political transformation of the RCD-Goma and the MLC. These factors related to the stabilisation process that unfolded in the country starting with the signing of the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement in July 1999, the make-up and the behaviour of the rebel groups involved as well as changes in international politics, especially the advent of the Bush administration to power in the United States in January 2001, which led to increased international pressure on Rwanda and Uganda to desist from interfering in Congolese internal affairs and the strengthening of the United Nations' peace efforts in the DRC.

KEYWORDS:

• RCD-Goma
• MLC
• Democratic Republic of Congo
• rebel group
• rebel-to-military reintegration
• political transformation
• Second Congo War

Notes on contributor

Sadiki Koko is a Research Associate with the Department of Politics and International Relations, Faculty of Humanities, University of Johannesburg in South Africa.

Notes

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4. Klapdor D, ‘From rebels to politicians. Explaining rebel-to-party transformations after civil war: The case of Nepal’, DESTIN Working Paper Series, 09-94, 2009, p. 13.

5. Berdal M & DH Ucko, ‘Introduction: The political reintegration of armed groups after war’, in Berdal M & DH Ucko (eds), Reintegrating Armed Groups after Conflict: Politics, Violence and Transition. London: Routledge, 2009, p. 6.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

8. Penetrante AM, ‘Facilitating intractable political transformation of armed rebel groups: Bridging gaps between transformation and peace agreements’, paper presented at the Panel on Peace process and Conflict Resolution of the International Studies Association (ISA) Annual Convention, San Diego, CA, 1–4 April 2012, p. 9.

9. Ibid., p. 6.

10. Klapdor D, ‘From rebels to politicians. Explaining rebel-to-party transformations after civil war: The case of Nepal’, DESTIN Working Paper Series, 09-94, 2009, p. 14.

11. Ibid., p. 2.

12. Nadarajah S & L Vimalarajah, ‘The politics of transformation: The LTTE and the 2002–2006 peace process in Sri Lanka’, Berghof Transitions Series 4, 2008, p. 12.

13. De Zeeuw J, ‘Understanding the political transformation of rebel movements’, in De Zeeuw J (ed.), From Soldiers to Politicians: Transforming Rebel Movements after Civil War. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2008, pp. 1-32.

14. Dudouet V et al., ‘From combatants to peacebuilders: A case for inclusive, participatory and holistic security transitions’, Berghof Foundations Policy Report, 2012, p. 37.

15. Nindorera W, ‘The CNDD-FDD in Burundi: The path from armed to political struggle’, Berghof Transitions Series 10, 2012.

16. Dudouet V et al., ‘From combatants to peacebuilders: A case for inclusive, participatory and holistic security transitions’, Berghof Foundations Policy Report, 2012, pp. 38–39.

17. Berdal M & DH Ucko, ‘Introduction: The political reintegration of armed groups after war’, in Berdal M & DH Ucko (eds), Reintegrating Armed Groups after Conflict: Politics, Violence and Transition. London: Routledge, 2009, p. 3.

18. Kovacs MS, ‘From rebellion to politics: The transformation of rebel groups to political parties in civil war processes’, Report 77, 2007, p. 8.

19. Penetrante AM, ‘Facilitating intractable political transformation of armed rebel groups: Bridging gaps between transformation and peace agreements’, paper presented at the Panel on Peace Process and Conflict Resolution of the International Studies Association (ISA) Annual Convention, San Diego, CA, 1–4 April 2012, p. 10.

20. Dudouet V et al., ‘From combatants to peacebuilders: A case for inclusive, participatory and holistic security transitions’, Berghof Foundations Policy Report, 2012, pp. 38–39.

21. Nindorera W, ‘The CNDD-FDD in Burundi: The path from armed to political struggle’, Berghof Transitions Series 10, 2012.

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23. Kovacs MS, ‘From rebellion to politics: The transformation of rebel groups to political parties in civil war processes’, Report 77, 2007, p. 8.

24. Nindorera W, ‘The CNDD-FDD in Burundi: The path from armed to political struggle’, Berghof Transitions Series 10, 2012, p. 21.

25. Nadarajah S & L Vimalarajah, ‘The politics of transformation: The LTTE and the 2002–2006 peace process in Sri Lanka’, Berghof Transitions Series 4, 2008, p. 12.

26. Curtis D & J De Zeeuw, Rebel Movements and Political Party Development in Post-conflict Societies – A Short Literature Review. New York: The City University of New York Graduate Center, 2009, p. 3.

27. Ibid.

28. Penetrante AM, ‘Facilitating intractable political transformation of armed rebel groups: Bridging gaps between transformation and peace agreements’, paper presented at the Panel on Peace Process and Conflict Resolution of the International Studies Association (ISA) Annual Convention, San Diego, CA, 1–4 April 2012, p. 5.

29. Curtis D & J De Zeeuw, Rebel Movements and Political Party Development in Post-conflict Societies – A Short Literature Review. New York: The City University of New York Graduate Center, 2009, p. 4.

30. Ibid.

31. Penetrante AM, ‘Facilitating intractable political transformation of armed rebel groups: Bridging gaps between transformation and peace agreements’, paper presented at the Panel on Peace Process and Conflict Resolution of the International Studies Association (ISA) Annual Convention, San Diego, CA, 1–4 April 2012, p. 5.

32. Prunier G, Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 184.

33. Marriage Z, ‘Flip-flop rebel, dollar soldier: Demobilisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, in Berdal M & DH Ucko (eds), Reintegrating Armed Groups after Conflict: Politics, Violence and Transition. London: Routledge, 2009, p. 127.

34. De Goede MJD, The Price for Peace in the Congo: The Incorporation of Political-economy of War in the State and Governance System. Saint Andrews: Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, 2007, p. 5.

35. Marriage Z, ‘Flip-flop rebel, dollar soldier: Demobilisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, in Berdal M & DH Ucko (eds), Reintegrating Armed Groups after Conflict: Politics, Violence and Transition. London: Routledge, 2009, p. 129.

36. French N, ‘The coltan conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’, in Falola T & RC Njoku (eds), War and Peace in Africa. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010, p. 488.

37. Afoaku OG, ‘The anti-Kabila war, 1998–2003’, in Falola T & RC Njoku (eds), War and Peace in Africa. Durham, NC: North Carolina Academic Press, 2010, p. 505.

38. Reyntjens F, The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009, p. 199.

39. Afoaku OG, ‘The anti-Kabila war, 1998–2003’, in Falola T & RC Njoku (eds), War and Peace in Africa. Durham, NC: North Carolina Academic Press, 2010, p. 506.

40. De Goede MJD, The Price for Peace in the Congo: The Incorporation of Political-economy of War in the State and Governance System. Saint Andrews: Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, 2007. The MLC's relative acceptance was due to the fact that this region known to be close to the Mobutu regime saw the rebellion as an opportunity to fend off the shame imposed upon it by the toppling of Mobutu by the Swahili-dominated AFDL.

41. At the beginning of the security sector reform process, the MLC put the total number of its combatants at 30,000. See Marriage Z, ‘Flip-flop rebel, dollar soldier: Demobilisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, in Berdal M & DH Ucko (eds), Reintegrating Armed Groups after Conflict: Politics, Violence and Transition. London: Routledge, 2009, p. 127. As was the case with all belligerent groups, this figure might have been exaggerated.

42. In fact, the bulk of Ugandan troops deployed to Congo during the second war were based in Ituri (1200) rather than in MLC-controlled territory (650). See Marriage Z, ‘Flip-flop rebel, dollar soldier: Demobilisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, in Berdal M & DH Ucko (eds), Reintegrating Armed Groups after Conflict: Politics, Violence and Transition. London: Routledge, 2009, p. 129.

43. Rogier E, ‘Democratic Republic of Congo: Problems of the peacekeeping process’, in Furley O & R May (eds), Ending Africa's Wars: Progressing to Peace. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006, p. 99.

44. They include Angola, Burundi, Chad, the DRC, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda and Zimbabwe.

45. They included the RCD-Goma, the MLC, the RCD-K/ML, the RCD-N, the Mai-Mai, the FDLR (Rwanda), the CNDD-FDD (Burundi) and UNITA (Angola).

46. See Coghlan B et al., ‘Mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A nationwide survey’, The Lancet, 37.9504, 2006, p. 49.

47. These two vice-president positions were awarded to Azarias Ruberwa (RCD-Goma) and Jean-Pierre Bemba (MLC).

48. Hale AZ, ‘In search of peace: An autopsy of the political dimensions of violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, Unpublished PhD Thesis (Political Science). University of Florida, 2009, p. 233.

49. Ibid., p. 234.

50. Reyntjens F, The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009, p. 263. CIAT was provided for in the 2002 Global and Inclusive Agreement. Its membership consisted of the ambassadors of China, France, Russia, the UK, the USA, Angola, Belgium, Canada, Gabon, South Africa and Zambia as well as the representatives of the African Union and the European Union in the DRC. CIAT's main goal was to engage continuously Congolese transitional partners so as to ensure that the transition held and was successfully completed. See Sadiki K, ‘MONUC and the quest for peace in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Assessment of a peacekeeping mission’, African Security Review, 20.2, 2011, p. 34.

51. Prunier G, Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 305.

52. De Goede MJD, The Price for Peace in the Congo: The Incorporation of Political-economy of War in the State and Governance System. Saint Andrews: Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, 2007.

53. See ‘Présidence de la République, Décret-Loi No 03-001 du 15 avril 2003 portant amnistie pour faits de guerre, infractions politiques et d’opinion’, Journal Officiel, Numéro Spécial, 17 April 2003.

54. For a detailed discussion on the new definition of Congolese citizenship as provided for by Law No. 04/024, see Sadiki K, ‘State-building, citizenship and the Banyarwanda question in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, Strategic Review for Southern Africa, 35.1, 2013, pp. 41-77.

55. Prunier G, Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 301.

56. Sadiki KF, ‘From the AFDL to the CNDP: Identity and civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’, Unpublished PhD Thesis (Political Studies). University of Johannesburg, 2015, p. 221.

57. Prunier G, Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 301.

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60. Khadiagala G, ‘UN peace in the Great Lakes region: The DRC, Rwanda and Burundi’, in Adekeye A (ed.), From Global Apartheid to Global Village. Africa and the United Nations. Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu–Natal Press, 2009, p. 317.

61. It should be borne in mind that when registering as a political party, the RCD-Goma assumed its original name, RCD. In subsequent text, I shall use this latter acronym.

62. Kadima D & D Tshiyoyo, ‘Democratic Republic of Congo’, in Kadima D & S Booysen (eds), Compendium of Elections in Southern Africa 1989–2009: 20 Years of Multiparty Democracy. Johannesburg: EISA, 2009, p. 135.

63. Hale AZ, ‘In search of peace: An autopsy of the political dimensions of violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, Unpublished PhD Thesis (Political Science). University of Florida, 2009, pp. 32, 233.

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67. Mangu AM, ‘Democracy and states’ compliance with regional and sub-regional election benchmarks in Africa: The 28 November 2011 elections in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, Journal of African Elections, 13.1, 2013, p. 28.

68. For an interesting account on the irregularities that characterised the DRC's 2011 elections, see Mavungu ME, ‘Stay in power whatever it takes. Frauds and repression in the 2011 elections in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, Journal of African Elections, 12.3, 2013, pp. 25–50.

69. This official motivation put forward by the M23 leadership has since been contested by a number of authors. See, for instance, Minani BR, ‘Que veut le M23? A propos de l’application de l’accord de paix du 23 mars 2009’, Congo-Afrique, 52.471–472, 2013, pp. 30–40.

70. Sadiki K, ‘The Mouvement du 23 Mars and the dynamics of a failed insurgency in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, South African Journal of International Affairs, 2014, pp. 261–278.

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72. Sadiki K & TY Kalulu, ‘La question du troisième mandat présidentiel au Burundi: quelles leçons pour la République Démocratique du Congo?’, Journal of African Elections, 2017 (in press).

73. De Goede MJD, The Price for Peace in the Congo: The Incorporation of Political-economy of War in the State and Governance System. Saint Andrews: Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, 2007, p. 2.

74. Marriage Z, ‘Flip-flop rebel, dollar soldier: Demobilisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, in Berdal M & DH Ucko (eds), Reintegrating Armed Groups after Conflict: Politics, Violence and Transition. London: Routledge, 2009, p. 135.

75. Bangré H, ‘Azarias Ruberwa: Kinshasa n'a pas le choix, il y aura intégration du M23’, Radio France Internationale, 12 March 2013, http://www.rfi.fr/afrique/20130312-azarias-ruberwa-kinshasa-pas-le-choix-il-y-aura-integration-m23 (accessed 17 February 2017). Read also Radio Okapi, ‘RDC: Jean-Pierre Bemba appelle les Congolais à éviter la partition du pays’, Radio Okapi, 12 November 2012, http://www.radiookapi.net/actualite/2012/11/12/rdc-jean-pierre-bemba-appelle-les-congolais-eviter-la-partition-du-pays (accessed 17 February 2017).