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Due to increased global access to the Internet and the advent of social media, diplomacy has been irreversibly changed. The term ‘digital diplomacy’, which entered the lexicon in the past two decades, refers to the intersection of information and communication technologies (ICTs) with the functions of diplomacy. Digital diplomacy is also often referred to as virtual diplomacy, e-diplomacy, mobile diplomacy, cyber diplomacy, and networked diplomacy. Globally, various digital technologies have become change agents influencing diplomatic aspects such as negotiations – whether bilateral or multilateral – consular services, economic diplomacy, public diplomacy and national security, as well as internal communications within foreign ministries and others. ICTs have been inscribed into diplomatic practice at the outward image promotion levels and at inward data and information management levels in traditional and non-traditional diplomatic organisations. This special issue has been developed around the concept and practice of digital diplomacy from an African perspective to underscore the implications of the changing nature of diplomacy on the continent.
This special issue focuses on three factors of the digitalisation of diplomacy in an African context.
First, although digital diplomacy is practiced in Africa by both conventional diplomats (members of the diplomatic corps in ministries of foreign affairs) and by other stakeholders in international affairs such as corporate executives and civil society representatives, the practise of digital diplomacy remains limited on the continent compared to other regions. Moreover, digital diplomatic practices in Africa are often not perceived as ‘digital diplomacy’ per se, meaning that the use of ICTs in the foreign policy sphere on the continent is more inadvertent than intentional and systematic. One of the objectives of this issue is therefore to contribute knowledge that would encourage not only the uptake of digital diplomacy at the practical level, but also the development of digital diplomacy policies and strategies among African foreign policy practitioners. The guest editors hope that this issue will ignite an interest in developing skills and competences that would enhance African digital diplomatic practices.
Second, the study of digital diplomacy is almost non-existent in African universities, meaning that there is a large research gap on the topic. Due to a lack of African theory in this field, few scholars can be identified as experts. In turn, the paucity of scholarship means that issues around digital diplomacy in Africa are not being problematised and debated, nor do African diplomats receive formal training on this already crucial aspect of diplomacy, which will only increase in importance in the execution of their countries’ foreign policy. Furthermore, scholars of diplomacy can ill-afford this scarcity of knowledge in an era of ICT prevalence which marks the Fourth Industrial Revolution. This special issue is intended to improve the status quo, and help introduce the concepts, theories and methodologies of digital diplomacy that would not only herald the arrival of digital diplomacy in African academia, but that would also encourage the uptake of digital diplomacy in African diplomatic practice. The ICT-led evolution of diplomacy calls for closer linkages between scholars and practitioners, to develop a body of African knowledge and use it to train a new cadre of digital-savvy diplomats.
Third, this special issue was conceptualised during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which forced countries all over the world to accelerate and enhance the use of ICTs across many societal spheres, including diplomacy. Although pre-pandemic African ministries of foreign affairs (MFAs) had to some extent employed digital technologies, the pandemic-induced social distancing and travel restrictions forced them to prioritise transforming their digital diplomacy practices. Not only have they had to consider how to operate in virtual environments to combat disinformation and misinformation, but they also had to consider new operational aspects of their work, both at home and abroad. Moreover, African MFAs, as well as other diplomatic practitioners, have had to consider how to better serve their citizens by using digital diplomacy in agenda-setting and improved provision of e-services. Practices in international affairs, broadly, and the diplomatic field, specifically, have been suddenly transformed. These developments fast-tracked the uptake of digital diplomacy in Africa, albeit with the shortcomings pointed out above, including the absence of guiding policies and the shortage of digital diplomatic practitioners. This provides an opportunity for increased discourse about digital diplomacy on the continent by both academics and practitioners alike, with a view to identifying best practices and sharing lessons.
Two related activities strongly influence the structure and content of this special issue. The first of these was a series of webinars in June and July 2020 on digital diplomacy with African diplomats, jointly hosted by the University of the Witwatersrand's African Centre for the Study of the United States (ACSUS), South Africa’s Department of International Relations and Cooperation (DIRCO), the South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA) and the Center on Public Diplomacy at the University of Southern California. The involvement of diplomats from several African countries, and the presentations by former and serving US diplomats, aimed to strengthen the linkages between academia and government.
The second series of activities revolved around ongoing conversations between African academics interested in digital diplomacy under the auspices of the African Digital Diplomacy Research Group. The group comprises researchers from various African countries and is hosted by ACSUS. As a result of these discussions, several think pieces were published by the Africa Portal, an expert analysis hub of SAIIA. The dialogue within the research group and the resulting outputs offer insights for identifying core concerns and additional challenges facing African countries when grappling with the demands of digital diplomacy.
This special issue was a natural next step following the series of webinars, group discussions and think pieces. Each of the following seven articles addresses one or more of the following knowledge gaps: Are there any unique attributes of African digital diplomacy? How does the use of digital platforms for diplomacy by African nations diverge or converge with the practices of countries such as China? What are some of the recommendations and proposals that can be offered to African governments regarding the practice of digital diplomacy?
The issue begins with Yarik Turianskyi and Bob Wekesa's article, ‘African digital diplomacy: Emergence, evolution, and the future’, which charts the emergence of unfolding practices in African digital diplomacy. The rapid spread of COVID-19 meant that African diplomats have had to engage with digital diplomacy techniques and tools in ways they had not previously. Turianskyi and Wekesa offer suggestions for improvements to African digital diplomacy practices and scholarship, based on insights gleaned from the empirical analysis of 21 virtual engagements with African diplomats in 2020.
Africa has been on the periphery of the international knowledge structure, including in the governance of digital technologies. Lesley Masters’ contribution, ‘Africa, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, and digital diplomacy: (Re)negotiating the international knowledge structure’, focuses attention on the role of African stakeholders in the global governance of new science and technology innovations. The author's exploratory article positions digital diplomacy for digital technology, or relations in negotiating the governance of digital technologies, as an analytical tool. As discussions around the Fourth Industrial Revolution and Africa's potential to leapfrog developmental stages have become ubiquitous, it is important to assess the continent’s current role and potential critically.
As Masters’ underscores digital technologies as potentially moving Africa from the periphery of the international knowledge structure, Odilile Ayodele considers how digital transformation can revitalise Africa's efforts at continental integration. Ayodele's contribution, ‘The digital transformation of diplomacy: Implications for the African Union and continental diplomacy’, views digital transformation as part and parcel of the evolution of diplomatic practice and shines a light on the African Union as the apex institution driving digital transformation on the continent. These three articles provide a segue for the next four case study articles. Ilan Manor and Geraldine Adiku's analysis examines how the Ethiopian, Kenyan, and Rwandan embassies utilise social media to engage with their diasporic communities. There is an increasing amount of literature that reflects on how ministries of foreign affairs use social media platforms to engage with their communities in the diaspora, but there is dearth of research focusing on African embassies. The authors fill this crucial gap in their article, ‘From “traitors” to “saviours”: A longitudinal analysis of Ethiopian, Kenyan and Rwandan embassies’ practice of digital diaspora diplomacy’. Their article provides insight into the relational aspects of digital diplomacy.
As noted earlier the global health pandemic has meant that the practice of diplomacy, specifically digital diplomacy, has had to evolve rapidly. As Manor and Adiku consider relations with the diaspora, Cliff Mboya's article focuses on digital use and social media as part of a broader digital diplomacy policy. Mboya's contribution, ‘Kenya's digital diplomacy amid COVID-19: New tools in an old toolbox?’, presents research into whether Kenya's Ministry of Foreign Affairs has successfully used social media platforms and other digital tools to advance their diplomacy.
Social media, and the increasing access to the Internet, has increased the visibility and reach of non-state actors. As a result, the reach and intensity of their diplomatic activities are magnified. What does this mean for a state if such an actor is hostile? This is one of the questions Floribert Endong tackles in his contribution, ‘The “Dark Side” of African digital diplomacy: Cameroonian and Nigerian governments’ responses to the online propaganda of separatist groups’. Endong underscores the paradoxical effects of digital media for States while questioning the efficacy of the state's responses. The author argues that the result often gives credence to the international image of the Nigerian and Cameroonian governments as being authoritarian rather than reducing the influence of such groups.
Finally, Ellison Shumba brings a journalist's perspective to understanding Chinese Wolf Warrior diplomacy, which has been recently making global headlines, and what this means for Africa. Shumba's contribution, ‘An investigation into “Wolf Warrior” diplomacy in Africa via Twitter and Facebook at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic’, queries the social media messaging employed by Chinese diplomats, in relation to Africa, at the onset of the health pandemic. The author draws on lessons that African MFAs can glean to tailor their digital diplomacy strategies.
We hope that this volume serves as a useful reference point for international relations and diplomacy scholars, diplomats, and other practitioners. Moreover, we hope that this body of work will act as a call to action for further Africa-focused research into digital diplomacy and its implications for international affairs.
Acknowledgements
We want to thank the South African Journal of International Affairs editorial team, specifically Martha Bridgman and Maxine Rubin, for their support and guidance in bringing our vision to fruition. We would also like to thank the long list of anonymous peer-reviewers for their constructive criticisms and insightful suggestions. The entire special issue, and the individual articles, are richer thanks to their diligence.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Bob Wekesa
Bob Wekesa (PhD) is the ACSUS partnerships, research and communications manager. He holds a bachelor's degree from the University of Nairobi and masters and doctoral degrees from the Communication University of China. His background is in journalism. His area of research is the intersection of media and communications on the one hand and geopolitics, diplomacy and foreign policy on the other. He is specifically focused on public diplomacy. His current research work includes: Africa–US public diplomacy (including diaspora relations); cities as actors in international relations; Africa–US digital diplomacy and the representation of Africa in American media and America in African media. He is also working on the trilateral Africa–US-China engagement.
Yarik Turianskyi
Yarik Turianskyi is the Deputy Programme Head for African Governance and Diplomacy at the South African Institute of International Affairs. He joined the Institute in 2008 after completing a Master's degree in Political Science from the University of Pretoria, which assessed the African Peer Review Mechanism as a standard for good governance on the continent. While completing his studies Yarik also lectured in Political Science and International Relations. During his time at SAIIA Yarik has authored over 12 research papers, focused on governance, technology and gender, and over 30 opinion articles on various governance themes. He has been to and conducted research in 10 African countries and is the co-editor of a book ‘African Accountability: What Works and What Doesn't’. Yarik has also been involved at various South African radio stations as both a presenter and correspondent since 2002. You may follow him on twitter: @Yarik_T
Odilile Ayodele
Odilile Ayodele is a Senior Research Associate with the BRICS Project in the Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. She holds a PhD in Politics (University of Johannesburg), and her research explores the politics of digitalisation in Africa.