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ABSTRACT
Confronted with myriad security challenges, African states and the much-vaunted peace and security architecture of the African Union (AU) has proven not to be up to the challenge. Indeed, this is implicitly acknowledged by the AU itself if one considers the creation of such security structures as the African Mission in Somalia (AMISOM), which exists outside its peace and security architecture. This paper argues for a radical rethink of security structures on the African continent – one in which state structures of security coexist with newer forms of security actors, including private military companies (PMCs), community movements and the business sector. Whilst this shift in security actors is already happening on the ground, policymakers need to embrace this new reality.
Notes on contributor
Hussein Solomon is a professor in the Department of Political Studies and Governance at the University of the Free State, South Africa ([email protected])
Notes
1 Cilliers, Future Imperfect?, 4.
2 Hentz, ‘African Security in the Twenty-First Century’, 3.
3 Aning and Salihu, ‘The African Security Predicament’, 9.
4 ‘Africa: Low Commodity Prices'.
5 Piombo, ‘Resources and Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa’, 97.
6 ‘Africa: Low Commodity Prices'.
7 Aning and Salihu, ‘The African Security Predicament’, 9.
8 Howe, ‘African Private Security’, 23.
9 Institute for Economics and Peace, Global Peace Index 2015.
10 Spears, ‘The State System and Africa's Permanent Instability’, 114.
11 Reno, ‘Conflict and War in Africa’, 26.
12 Ibid., 29.
13 Freedom House, ‘Sub-Saharan Africa’.
14 Hentz and Blevins, ‘State, Boundaries and Regional Collapse in Sub-Saharan Africa’.
15 Fund for Peace, ‘Fragile States Index’.
16 Ibid.
17 Bøås and Dunn, ‘Understanding African Guerrillas', 91.
18 ‘UN Groups Reveals How Al Shabaab Gets Arms Meant for Somalia Regime’.
19 Kone, ‘Lessons from Mali's Arab Spring’, 12.
20 Solomon, Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Africa, 73.
21 Mark, ‘Uphill Battle for Nigeria's Ailing Army’, 19.
22 Dersso, The Role and Place of the African Standby Force, 4.
23 Cilliers, The African Standby Force, 1.
24 Dersso, The Role and Place of the African Standby Force, 7.
25 Personal correspondence from Captain (SAN) Kobus Maasdorp, 26 June 2014.
26 Williams, ‘Peacekeeping in Africa: After the Cold War’, 71.
27 Solomon, ‘The Changing Nature of the Terrorist Threat in Africa’, 95.
28 Aziz, ‘Daesh, al-Qaeda Compete for Influence in Africa’.
29 Freear and de Coning, ‘Lessons from the African Union Mission for Somalia’, 2.
30 Williams, AMISOM in Transition, 2.
31 Williams, ‘Peacekeeping in Africa: After the Cold War’, 71.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid.
34 Ibid.
35 Engel and Porto, ‘The African Union and African Security’, 190–191.
36 Ibid., 191.
37 Williams, ‘Peacekeeping in Africa: After the Cold War’, 69, 81.
38 ‘UN: Stop Sexual Abuse by Peacekeepers'.
39 Williams, ‘Peacekeeping in Africa: After the Cold War’, 80.
40 Oarhe, ‘Asymmetric Warfare’, 69.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
43 Freeman, ‘South African Mercenaries' Secret War on Boko Haram’.
44 Ibid.
45 Smith, ‘South Africa's Mercenaries Turn Tide on Boko Haram’.
46 Freeman, ‘South African Mercenaries' Secret War on Boko Haram’.
47 Smith, ‘South Africa's Mercenaries Turn Tide on Boko Haram’.
48 Ero, ‘Vigilantes, Civil Defence Forces and Militia Groups', 25.
49 Gumedze, ‘DynCorps International – Africa's Security Sector Reform Champion’.
50 Aning, Jay, and Atuobi, ‘Private Military Companies in US–Africa Policy’.
51 Brooks, ‘Messias or Mercenaries?’, 139.
52 Brooks, ‘Write a Cheque, End a War’, 33.
53 Solomon, Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Africa, 108–112.
54 Freeman, ‘South African Mercenaries' Secret War on Boko Haram’.
55 Kinsey, Hansen, and Franklin, ‘Impact of Private Security Companies on Somalia's Governance’.
56 Source Watch, ‘Military Professional Resources Inc.’.
57 DynCorps International, ‘Supporting Peacekeeping Efforts in Africa’.
58 Gumedze, ‘DynCorps International – Africa's Security Sector Reform Champion’.
59 Renders and Terlinden, ‘Negotiating Statehood in a Hybrid Political Order’, 723.
60 Solomon, Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism, 49.
61 Ibid., 50.
62 Hartkorn, ‘Community-led Stabilisation in Somalia’, 26.
63 CRW Flags, ‘Kamajors/C.D.F. Movement, Sierra Leone’.
64 Ero, ‘Vigilantes, Civil Defence Forces and Militia Groups', 27–28.
65 Reno, ‘Conflict and War in Africa’, 24, 29.
66 Solomon, Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Africa, 64.
67 Weidenbaum, ‘The Role of Business in Fighting Terrorism’, 6.
68 ‘In Amenas Inquest: British Victims of Algerian Attacks’.
69 Wilkinson, ‘Does SA Have the Largest Private Security Industry in the World?’.
70 Solomon, Jihad: A South African Perspective, 74.
71 Weidenbaum, ‘The Role of Business in Fighting Terrorism’, 6.
72 Ibid.
73 Neal, ‘Business as Usual?’.
74 Ibid.
75 Ibid.
76 Trofimov, ‘Jihad Comes to Africa’.
77 ICoCA, International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers.
78 Brooks, ‘Write a Cheque, End a War’, 35.
79 DCAF, Armed Non-State Actors, 13.
80 US Department of Justice, Engaging Private Sector to Promote Homeland Security.
81 Ibid., 3.
82 US Government, ‘US Support for Strengthening Democratic Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa’.
83 Solomon, Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Africa, 118.