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ABSTRACT
This article analyses the roles of key liberation war actors in shaping the new security regime in Zimbabwe. This is done through analysing the trajectory of the security sector reforms (SSR) and the missed opportunities for transformation since 1980. The post 1980 security establishment was dominated by the logistical posturing of the liberation war security structures. This allowed for the infusion of the exile formed liberation culture values that evolved during war-time governance practices. SSR in the country remained deliberately skewed towards technical capacity building, without attempts to align the security provision with the universal human rights doctrine. The findings show that the partisan oriented SSR approach has contributed to the elusive human security paradigm in the country.
Notes
1 Masiya and Maringira, The use of heroism in the ZANU-PF intra party factional dynamics.
2 This harassment occurs in rural areas away from the surveillance of urban activists and journalists.
3 The Tyrants, 2500 years of absolute power and corruption.
4 African Union Commission, The African Union’s Policy Framework on SSR.
5 Ibid.
6 Bogdanovski and Lembovska, Towards 2nd generation of security sector reforms in Macedonia.
7 Chitiyo, Making the case for security sector reform in Zimbabwe.
8 Krogstad, Security, development, and force: Revisiting police reform in Sierra Leone.
9 Bailie, The African military in a democratic Age.
10 Lama, Human vs. national security
11 Sen, Development as freedom.
12 Lancaster House Agreement - 21 December 1979.
13 Rwodzi, Reconciliation: A false start in Zimbabwe? (1980-1990).
14 Chitiyo and M. Rupiya, Tracking Zimbabwe's political history: the Zimbabwe Defence Force from 1980 to 2005.
15 Ibid.
16 Musemwa, The ambiguities of democracy: The demobilisation of the Zimbabwe ex-combatants and the ordeal of rehabilitation 1980-1993.
17 The Free Library. S.v. Chapter 5; The role of the military in Zimbabwe: 1980-2003.
18 Chitiyo and Rupiya, Tracking Zimbabwe's political history: the Zimbabwe Defence Force from 1980 to 2005.
19 Ibid.
20 RENAMO, supported by anti-communist Rhodesia and South Africa, opposed FRELIMO's attempts to establish a socialist one party state.
21 Jackson, The civil war roots of military domination in Zimbabwe: The integration process following the rhodesian war and the road to ZANLA dominance.
22 Rupiya, Civil-military relations in Zimbabwe: Is there a threat?
23 ZANLA and ZIPRA forces fought in the barracks in Entumbane, Bulawayo and in Chitungwiza. ZIPRA questioned their marginalisation in the military ranks, the demobilisation exercise and minimisation of their liberation contribution.
24 Chitiyo and Rupiya, Tracking Zimbabwe's political history: the Zimbabwe Defence Force from 1980 to 2005.
25 Atrocities were documented by the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace and the Legal Resources Foundation in Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace: A report on the Disturbances in Matebeleland and the Midlands, 1980 to 1988.
26 Atlas and Licklider, Conflict among former allies after civil war settlement: Sudan, Zimbabwe, Chad, and Lebanon.
27 Ibid.
28 Gbla, Challenges to security sector reform in the horn of Africa.
29 Chikwanha, The politics of housing delivery- A comparative study of administrative behaviour in South Africa and Zimbabwe.
30 Ibid.
31 Moyo, Understanding the executive-military relations in Zimbabwe: Beyond Mugabe’s redistributive nationalist rhetoric.
32 Muzondidya and Ndlovu-Gatsheni, ‘Echoing Silences’: Ethnicity in post-colonial Zimbabwe.
33 Ibid.
34 Kriger, ZANU-PF strategies in general elections, 1980-2000: Discourse and coercion.
35 Mushonga, A case study of gender and security sector reform in Zimbabwe.
36 Gbla explains Sierra Leone’s similar experiences with technical emphasis on the police and the military.
37 Hawker, Zimbabwe: Retrospect and prospects.
38 Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans in Post-War Zimbabwe and Musemwa, The ambiguities of democracy: The demobilisation of the Zimbabwe ex-combatants and the ordeal of rehabilitation, 1980-1993.
39 Ibid.
40 Olsson, clinging to power-The initiation, reproduction and maintenance of neopatrimonial rule in Zimbabwe.
41 Rupiya, Civil-military relations in Zimbabwe: Is there a threat?
42 Stapleton, African police and soldiers in colonial Zimbabwe, 1923-80.
43 McGuire, The security factor in the political economy of development.
44 Ibid.
45 Rupiya, Civil-military relations in Zimbabwe: Is there a threat?
46 Smith and Chikowore, Zimbabwe: The Mnangagwa squad.
47 Ibid.
48 Kriger, N., ZANU-PF Strategies in General Elections, 1980-2000: Discourse and Coercion.
49 Human Rights Watch, The elephant in the room-Reforming Zimbabwe’s security sector ahead of elections.
50 Ibid.
51 NewZimbabwevision, 2917 ZANU-PF Green Bombers on government payroll to be retired by the end of December 2018.
52 Makwerere, Chinzete and Musorowegomo, Human rights and policing: A case study of Zimbabwe.
53 Human Rights Watch, Zimbabwe events of 2016.
54 Global Witness Report, An inside job Zimbabwe: The state, the security forces, and a decade of disappearing diamonds.
55 Masunungure, A militarized election: The 27 June presidential run-off.
56 Mhofu and Powell, Zimbabwe protests intensify, but will it bring change?
57 For example, Enos Nkala openly told people at rallies that those who supported Zapu supported dissidents and therefore deserved to die. Mail and Guardian, Reviled in life and death.
58 Rupiya, Civil-military relations in Zimbabwe: Is there a threat?
59 Nyakudya, Security sector reform in Zimbabwe: Prospects and challenges.
60 Interviews in Rushinga, Mtoko and Mrewa in 2018.
61 Hendricks and Hutton, Security sector reform in Zimbabwe: What, why and how?’
62 Smith and Chikowore, Zimbabwe: The Mnangagwa squad.
63 Hanson, Zimbabwe’s security sector.
64 Chitiyo cited in Hanson, Zimbabwe’s security sector.
65 Hanson, Zimbabwe’s security sector.
66 Nyakudya, Security sector reform in Zimbabwe: Prospects and challenges.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Annie Barbara Chikwanha
Annie Barbara Chikwanha is an Associate Professor in the Department of Politics and International Relations at the University of Johannesburg. She has extensive regional experience on democracy & governance, human security, security sector governance and peace and conflict, and has consulted and published on these themes for regional and international organisations. She is a member of the International Advisory Committee for the Research Programme on Security & Rule of Law in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Settings Programme that is managed by the Netherland Research Council and the NOW-WOTRO Science for Global Development.