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ABSTRACT
The perceived economic threat has given rise to narrow nationalism in South Africa, which has given birth to direct, cultural and structural forms of violence, commonly referred to as xenophobia, which is actually Afrophobia. The main argument is that in as much as there is evidence of the influx of mainly African migrants in South Africa, and these have been largely accused of various crimes and contributing to rising unemployment, this perception trivialises the need for a multipronged and people-centred approach to South Africa’s and Africa’s underlying domestic challenges. Xenophobia should not be seen as only a South African but also an Africa problem, which consequently requires a national and continental response strategy. This then implies that South Africa has a role in stemming the challenges that have given impetus to a new form of narrow nationalism. On the other hand, the article attempts to explain what a continental response strategy might entail. In fact, the narratives of African migrants as pervasive criminals and job snatchers conveniently relieves the post-apartheid government which is expected to enhance service delivery and create opportunities for the locals, as well as giving dignity to the immigrants.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Gordon, “Shutting the Gates in South Africa,” 833.
2 Kersting, “New Nationalism,” 12.
3 Gray, “Cultivating Citizenship,” 392.
4 Kersting, “New Nationalism,” 12.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
7 Whitaker, “Citizens and Foreigners,” 112–7.
8 Ibid., 113–6.
9 Whitaker, “Citizens and Foreigners,” 117.
10 Desai, “Xenophobia,” 50.
11 Warner and Finchilescu, “Living with Prejudice: Xenophobia and Race,” 36.
12 Okyere-Manu, “Ethical Implications,” 227; Otu, “The Complexities of understanding Xenophobia,” 137.
13 Burke, “‘We are a target’: wave of xenophobic attacks sweeps Johannesburg”, The Guardian, September 10, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/10/we-are-a-target-wave-of-xenophobic-attacks-sweeps-johannesburg.
14 Mngomezulu and Dube, “Lost in translation,” 68.
15 Kersting, “New Nationalism,” 7.
16 Erasmus, “Durban Xenophobia: Foreign traders tormented by violence, vandals and fear”, Daily Maverick, March 11, 2021, https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-03-11-durban-xenophobic-foreign-traders-tormented-by-violence-vandals-and-fear/.
17 Matsinhe, “Africa's Fear of Itself,” 310.
18 Harris, Findley, Daniel and Kennard, “The Economic Roots,” 228.
19 Kersting, “New Nationalism,” 13.
20 Matsinhe, “Africa's Fear of Itself,” 295.
21 Sundstrom, “Sheltering Xenophobia,” 79–80.
22 Yadav, “Nelson Mandela,” 51.
23 Myambo, “Capitalism Disguised as Democracy,” 66.
24 Klotz, “Migration after Apartheid,” 834.
25 Formal apartheid because race relations remain strained many decades after the perceived end of apartheid in 1994.
26 Klotz, “Migration after Apartheid,” 831.
27 Whitaker, “Citizens and Foreigners,” 118.
28 Crush and David, “Special Issue: Transnationalism,” 2–4.
29 Ibid., 2.
30 Myambo, “Capitalism Disguised as Democracy,” 65.
31 Hicks, “The Constitution,” 393.
32 Nyamnjoh, “Racism,” 66.
33 National Action Plan to Combat Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, 2019.
34 OECD/ILO, How Immigrants Contribute to South Africa’s Economy.
35 Nyamnjoh, “Racism,” 839.
36 Mutanda, “Xenophobic violence,” 287.
37 Okyere-Manu, “Ethical Implications,” 233.
38 Nagar, “South Africa in Africa,” 4.
39 Derogatory South African term for those incapable of articulating local languages.
40 Klotz, “Migration after Apartheid,” 839.
41 Landau and Misago, “Who to Blame,” 102.
42 Penfold, “Public and Private Space,” 994.
43 Klotz, “Migration after Apartheid,” 833.
44 Marais, Matebesi, Mthombeni, Botes and van Rooyen, “Municipal unrest in the Free State (South Africa),” 51–69.
45 Kersting, “New Nationalism,” 11.
46 Matsinhe, “Africa's Fear of Itself,” 310.
47 Nyamnjoh, “Racism,” 67.
48 Ibid., 71–2.
49 Penfold, “Public and Private Space,” 993.
50 Ibid., 993–4.
51 Hayem, “From May 2008 to 2011,” 79.
52 Sundstrom, “Sheltering Xenophobia,” 71.
53 Gordon, “Shutting the Gates in South Africa,” 821–2.
54 Fourchard and Segatti, “Introduction,” 8
55 Nyamnjoh, “Racism,” 67.
56 Khair. “Capital and the New Xenophobia,” 44.
57 Gordon, Roberts, Struwig, Mchunu, Mtyingizane and Zondi. “Size Does Matter,” 33.
58 Gordon, “Xenophobia across the class divide.”
59 Harris, Findley, Daniel and Kennard, “The Economic Roots,” 228.
60 Ibid., 228.
61 Klotz, “Migration after Apartheid,” 833.
62 Ibid., 834.
63 Ibid.
64 Solomon, “The Taliban”.
65 Sundstrom, “Sheltering Xenophobia,” 70.
66 Hayem, “From May 2008 to 2011,” 81.
67 Nagar and Saunders, “Building Peace in Southern Africa,” 68.
68 Porter, “The Rights of Vulnerable,” 6.
69 Khair. “Capital and the New Xenophobia,” 46.
70 Myambo, “Capitalism Disguised as Democracy,” 67.
71 Ibid., 67.
72 Steinberg, “Security and Disappointment,” 356.
73 Choane, Shulika and Mthombeni, “An Analysis of the Causes,” 133.
74 Steinberg, “Security and Disappointment,” 349.
75 Hicks, “The Constitution,” 394.
76 Zatlin, “Scarcity and Resentment,” 719–20.
77 Choane, Shulika and Mthombeni, “An Analysis of the Causes,” 135.
78 Hicks, “The Constitution,” 393.
79 Harris, Findley, Daniel and Kennard, “The Economic Roots,” 228.
80 Ibid., 229.
81 Otu, “The Complexities of understanding Xenophobia,” 139–42.
82 Khair. “Capital and the New Xenophobia,” 46.
83 Choane, Shulika and Mthombeni, “An Analysis of the Causes,” 133.
84 Stats SA, Community Survey 2016 in Brief (Pretoria, 2016), 44.
85 Gordon, Roberts, Struwig, Mchunu, Mtyingizane and Zondi. “Size Does Matter,” 35.
86 Mngomezulu and Dube, “Lost in translation,” 68.
87 Mutanda, “Xenophobic violence,” 284; Hayem, “From May 2008 to 2011,” 79.
88 Hayem, “From May 2008 to 2011,” 78–9.
89 Mosselson, “There is no difference between citizens and non-citizens anymore,” 641.
90 Ibid., 643.
91 Ibid., 45.
92 Steinberg, “Security and Disappointment,” 347.
93 Hicks, “The Constitution,” 393.
94 This is not to undermine the services South Africa is offering to migrants and immigrants.
95 Mosselson, “There is no Difference between Citizens and Non-citizens anymore,” 645.
96 Fourchard and Segatti, “Introduction,” 7.
97 Penfold, “Public and Private Space,” 1001.
98 Edwards and Freeman, “Policing and non-nationals.”
99 Desai, “Xenophobia,” 51; Nyamnjoh, “Racism,” 67. See also Hayem, “From May 2008 to 2011,” 79.
100 Desai, “Xenophobia,” 54.
101 Matsinhe, “Africa's Fear of Itself,” 308.
102 Harris, Findley, Daniel and Kennard, “The Economic Roots,” 228.
103 Desai, “Xenophobia,” 54.
104 Nyamnjoh, “Racism,” 65–6.
105 Peberdy, Selecting Immigrants.
106 Ibid.
107 Landau and Misago, “Who to Blame,” 100.
108 Hayem, “From May 2008 to 2011,” 78.
109 Kerr and Durrheim, “The Dilemma of Anti-Xenophobia Discourse,” 583.
110 Landau and Misago, “Who to Blame,” 100.
111 Hengari, “Xenophobia Trivialises,” 2.
112 Mutanda, “The art of Mediation,” 139.
113 Dodson and Crush, “Migration Governance,” 2.
114 Whitaker, “Citizens and Foreigners,” 118.
115 Klotz, “Migration after Apartheid,” 834.
116 Fourchard and Segatti, “Introduction,” 4; Harris, Findley, Daniel and Kennard, “The Economic Roots,” 228.
117 Nagar and Saunders, “Building Peace in Southern Africa,” 1–2.
118 Nyamnjoh, “Racism,” 66.
119 Sachikonye, “Solidarity and Africa in the New Century,” 653–5.
120 Crush and Tevera, “Exiting Zimbabwe,” 1.
121 Chikanda, “Nursing the health system,” 133.
122 Naomi, “Commodifying the Female Body,” 127.
123 Munyewende, Rispel, Harris and Chersich, “Exploring perceptions of HIV risk,” S156.
124 Warner and Finchilescu, “Living with Prejudice,” 37.
125 Gordon, “Associational Life and 'the Dark Side' of Social Capital.”
126 Danso and McDonald, “Writing Xenophobia,” 125–30.
127 Nyamnjoh, “Racism,” 68.
128 Azindow, review of Insiders and Outsiders, 176.
129 Porter, “The Rights of Vulnerable,” 9.
130 Hicks, “The Constitution,” 393.
131 Akande, Musarurwa and Kaye, “Students’ Attitudes and Perceptions on Xenophobia,” 1–17.
132 Okyere-Manu, “Ethical Implications,” 236.
133 Porter, “The Rights of Vulnerable,” 9.
134 Gordon. “Waiting for the Barbarians.”
135 Nyamnjoh, Swartz, Roberts, Gordon and Struwig, Worlds apart.
136 OECD/ILO, How Immigrants Contribute to South Africa’s Economy.
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Darlington Mutanda
Darlington Mutanda is a Research Associate at the University of Johannesburg, Faculty of Humanities, Department of Politics and IR and temporary full-time lecturer at the University of Zimbabwe, Department of Peace Security and Society. Research interests include strategic studies and peacebuilding as it relates to: healing and reconciliation, media and conflict, gender and peacebuilding, African security, human security and conflict transformation, among others. He has published in peer-reviewed journals that include African Security Review, Journal of Peacebuilding & Development, Jadavpur Journal of International Relations, African Identities, Journal of Asian and African Studies and the Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research. Darlington is currently engaged in transformative research that incorporates heritage-based, victim-centred, non-legal, bottom-up, innovative and home-grown initiatives in developing and implementing models for resolving, managing and transforming conflict. This incorporates building peace through social harmony, political justice and economic equity.