State monopoly on urban transport system and human (in)security in Harare during the COVID-19 pandemic

ABSTRACT

This study discusses the human security costs and benefits generated by the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic-induced state monopoly on the urban public transport system in Zimbabwe through the Zimbabwe United Passenger Company (ZUPCO) since March 2020. Using empirical evidence from Harare, it argues that the ZUPCO initiative had far-reaching safety and security implications on urban residents’ lives during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study found that though the ZUPCO initiative mainly benefited commuters through affordable fares, it had many human security costs. The costs included reduced safety and decreased and unreliable services, which exposed the commuting public to the risk of contracting COVID-19 and other security challenges. The state monopoly on urban transport exacerbated the social and economic impact of COVID-19, promoted inequalities, police corruption and urban residents’ use of informal transport services, which were unsafe and costly. The study concludes that the Zimbabwean government lacks the capacity to provide services in the urban transport sector, akin to nearly every sector in the country. As a stop-gap measure, the government is encouraged to regulate and allow private players to complement its efforts for the benefit, convenience, security, and safety of commuters until it develops an efficient urban public transport system.

KEYWORDS:

• Human security
• ZUPCO
• urban mobility
• Harare
• Zimbabwe
• COVID-19

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

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2 John-Langba and John-Langba, ‘Covid-19 Responses in Africa’, 1.

3 African Union, ‘Press Statement’, 1.

4 Azevedo, ‘The State of Health’, 3.

5 Mugari and Obioha, ‘COVID-19 and the Restrictive Measures’, 403–4.

6 Shortall, Mouter and Van Wee, ‘COVID-19 Passenger Transport Measures and their Impacts’, 2.

7 Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum, ‘Zimbabwe Covid-19 lockdown monitoring report: 17 April 2020 – Day 19’, https://kubatana.net/2020/04/17/zimbabwe-covid-19-lockdown-monitoring-report-17-april-2020-day-19/ (accessed March 28, 2022).

8 Makombe, ‘Between a rock and a hard place’, 280.

9 Ministry of Health and Child Care, https://mobile.twitter.con/MoHCCZim/status/1536198305595674632?ref_src=twsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Etweet (accessed June 13, 2022).

10 UNDP, Human Development Report 1994: New Dimensions of Human Security, 23.

11 Taniguchi, Fang Fwa and Thompson, Urban Transport and Logistics Systems, vii.

12 For example, see, Shortall, Mouter and Van Wee, ‘COVID-19 Passenger Transport Measures and their Impacts’; Czodorova, Dockalik and Gnap, ‘Impact of COVID-19 on Bus and Urban Public Transport in SR’; Nurmandi et al., ‘Impact of COVID-19’; Habib and Anik, ‘Impacts of COVID-19 on Transport Modes and Mobility Behavior’; Gutiérrez, Miravet and Domènech, ‘COVID-19 and Urban Public Transport Services’.

13 Gutiérrez, Miravet and Domènech, ‘COVID-19 and Urban Public Transport Services’, 1.

14 Amadu et al., ‘Assessing Sub-Regional-Specific Strengths of Healthcare Systems’; Dandara, Dzobo and Chirikure, ‘COVID-19 Pandemic and Africa’.

15 Alhassan et al., ‘Urban Health Nexus With Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)’; Chersich et al., ‘COVID-19 in Africa’; Haider et al. ‘Lockdown Measures in Response to COVID-19’; Umviligihozo et al., ‘Sub-Saharan African Preparedness and Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic’; Wadvalla, ‘How Africa has Tackled COVID-19’.

16 See, for example, Luke, ‘The Impact of COVID-2019 on Transport in South Africa’; Sogbe, ‘The Evolving Impact of Coronavirus (COVID-19)’.

17 Nyoni et al., ‘Evaluating the Response to the Scourge of Coronavirus Pandemic in Poor Resourced Countries’.

18 Dzobo, Chitungo and Dzinamarira, ‘COVID-19’; Markworth-Young et al., ‘‘Here, We Cannot Practice What is Preached’’.

19 Mugari and Obioha, ‘COVID-19 and the Restrictive Measures’.

20 Hunter et al. ‘Learning on Harare’s Streets Under COVID-19 Lockdown’.

21 Makombe, ‘Between a Rock and a Hard Place’.

22 Mbulayi, Makuyana and Kang’the, ‘Psychosocial Impacts of the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Pandemic in Zimbabwe’.

23 Katsidzira, Gwaunza and Hakim, ‘The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Epidemic in Zimbabwe’; Murewanhema and Makurumidze, ‘Essential Health Services Delivery in Zimbabwe during the COVID-19 pandemic’; Murewanhema, Nyakanda and Madziyire, ‘Restoring and Maintaining Robust Maternity Services in the COVID-19 era’.

24 Mutekwe and Vanyoro, ‘Politicising ‘Covid-19’’.

25 See, for example, Maunder and Mbara, ‘The Effect of Government Participation’; Maunder and Mbara, ‘Liberalisation of Urban Public Transport, Services’; Mbara and Pisa, ‘An Analysis of Impediments to Deliver Sustainable Transport in Cities of Developing Countries’; Muchadenyika, ‘Informal Transport, Politics and Power in Harare’; Munuhwa et al., ‘Sustainability of Informal Shuttle Transport in Harare’; Chikengezha, ‘Mobility and Accessibility in Urban Areas’; Gweshe, Chidhakwa and Chakacha, ‘With the People.’

26 Mbara and Pisa, ‘An Analysis of Impediments to Deliver Sustainable Transport in Cities of Developing Countries’, 244.

27 Ibid.

28 Maunder and Mbara, ‘The Effect Of Government Participation’, 60.

29 Africa Moyo, ‘Poor Public Transport System Costs Zimbabwe’, The Herald, May 25, 2018, https://www.herald.co.zw/poor-public-transport-system-costs-zim/ (accessed December 10, 2021).

30 Mbara, ‘Achieving Sustainable Urban Transport in Harare.’

31 Ibid; Roselyne Sachiti, ‘Efficient Public Transport System Overdue in Harare’, The Herald, November 26, 2015, https://www.herald.co.zw/efficient-public-transport-system-overdue-in-harare/ (accessed January 2, 2022).

32 Clive Masarakufa, ‘The Ban on Private Kombis - A Closer Look’, May 23, 2020, https://startupbiz.co.zw/the-ban-on-private-kombis-a-closer-look/ (accessed March 10, 2022).

33 Victor Bhoroma, ‘ZUPCO Monopoly Unhealthy for Public Transport’, The Zimbabwe Independent, May 14, 2021, https://www.theindependent.co.zw/2021/05/14/zupco-monopoly-unhealthy-for-public-transport-sector/ (accessed January 20, 2022); Miriam Tose Majome, ‘Public Transport: Lessons from the Past’, Newsday, February 4, 2022, https://www.newsday.co.zw/2022/02/public-transport-lessons-from-the-past/ (accessed March 10, 2022).

34 Mbara, Coping with Demand for Urban Passenger’s Transport in Zimbabwe, 123.

35 Michael Chideme, ‘Zupco Recalls 400 Ex-workers for New Fleet’, The Standard, March 19, 2012. https://nehandaradio.com/2012/03/19/zupco-recalls-400-ex-workers-for-new-fleet/ (accessed February 10, 2022); Moyo, ‘Poor Public Transport System Costs Zimbabwe.’

36 Victor Bhoroma, ‘Revisiting ZUPCO’s Tricky Urban Transportation Model’, The Zimbabwe Independent, March 15, 2019, https://www.theindependent.co.zw/2019/03/15/revisiting-zupcos-tricky-urban-transportation-model/ (accessed March 15, 2022); Staff Writer, ‘ZUPCO Goes Shopping’, The Standard, February 6, 2004, https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2004/02/06/zupco-goes-shopping/ (accessed December 17, 2021).

37 Ndawana, ‘The Military and Democratisation in Post-Mugabe Zimbabwe’, 205–7.

38 Makombe, ‘Between a Rock and a Hard Place’.

39 Staff Reporter, ‘Blow for Kombi Operators as Govt Imposes Total Ban’, New Zimbabwe, November 7, 2020, https://www.newzimbabwe.com/blow-for-kombi-operators-as-govt-imposes-total-ban/ (accessed January 10, 2022).

40 Vusumuzi Dube, ‘Private Kombis Gone for Good’, The Sunday News, May 2, 2021, https://www.sundaynews.co.zw/private-kombis-gone-for-good/ (accessed March 10, 2022).

41 Lorraine Ndebele, ‘Govt Bullish on Zupco Viability’, The Zimbabwe Independent, May 20, 2022. https://www.theindependent.co.zw/2022/05/20/govt-bullish-on-zupco-viability/ (accessed June 15, 2022).

42 Mbara, ‘Achieving Sustainable Urban Transport in Harare’.

43 Leroy Dzenga, ‘Kombis Granted Nod to Operate, But … ’, The Sunday Mail, May 29, 2022, https://www.sundaymail.co.zw/kombis-granted-nod-to-operate-but (accessed June 10, 2022).

44 Focault, Discipline and Punish, 178.

45 Ibid.

46 Farai Machivenyika and Freeman Razemba, ‘Transporters Applaud Govt … Long-distance Buses Start Ferrying Urban Commuters Today’, The Herald, May 9, https://www.herald.co.zw/transporters-applaud-govt-long-distance-buses-start-ferrying-urban-commuters-today/ (accessed June 10, 2022).

47 Staff Reporter, ‘Government Introduces ZUPCO in Towns’, The Zimbabwe Mail, January 19, 2019, https://www.thezimbabwemail.com/business/government-introduces-zupco-in-towns/ (accessed March 27, 2022).

48 Zimbabwe Coalition on Debt and Development, Should the Government implement a “permanent” ban on kombis?, 3.

49 Columbus Mabika and Precious Manomano, ‘Banned Kombis Devise New Ways of Operation’, The Herald, December 30, 2020, https://www.herald.co.zw/banned-kombis-devise-new-ways-of-operation/ (accessed January 20, 2022).

50 Innocent Ruwende, ‘ZUPCO Buses Return – Kombis Feel the Heat’ The Herald, January 21, 2019, https://www.herald.co.zw/zupco-buses-return-kombis-feel-the-heat/ (accessed January 27, 2022).

51 Tendai Makaripe, ‘Urban Transport Woes a Man-Made Problem’, The Zimbabwe Independent, September 10, 2021, https://www.theindependent.co.zw/2021/09/10/urban-transport-woes-a-man-made-problem/ (accessed March 5, 2022).

52 Jeffrey Moyo, ‘Zimbabwe’s Banned ‘Kombi’ Operators Turn Vehicles to Mobile Stores’, 2020, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/zimbabwe-s-banned-kombi-operators-turn-vehicles-to-mobile-stores/1889248 (accessed March 12, 2022).

53 Machivenyika and Razemba, ‘Transporters Applaud Govt’.

54 Brenna Matendere, ‘Crisis Looms as Operators Dumb ZUPCO’, The Standard, July 6, 2020, https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2020/07/06/crisis-looms-as-operators-dump-zupco/ (accessed March 11, 2022).

55 Andile Tshuma, ‘Transport Blues as Zupco Fails to Cope With Demand’, The Chronicle, May 8, 2020, https://www.chronicle.co.zw/transport-blues-as-zupco-fails-to-cope-with-demand/ (accessed January 28, 2022).

56 Paidamoyo Muzulu, ‘ZUPCO: Reimagining Public Transport System in Zimbabwe’, Newsday, December 11, 2021, https://www.newsday.co.zw/2021/12/zupco-reimagining-public-transport-system/ (accessed March 18, 2022).

57 Ivan Zhakata and Kudzaishe Muhamba, ‘More ZUPCO Buses Coming in Time for Festive Season’, The Herald, November 9, 2021.

58 Talent Gore, ‘Kombis Not Coming Back’, H-Metro, April 26, 2022, https://www.hmetro.co.zw/kombis-not-coming-back/ (accessed June 20, 2022).

59 Makombe, ‘Between a Rock and a Hard Place’, 277–9.

60 Pirie, ‘Transport Pressures in Urban Africa’, 133.

61 Makombe, ‘“Between a Rock and a Hard Place”’, 289.

62 Ibid.

63 Nqobani Ndlovu and Blessed Mhlanga, ‘Commuters Sing Transport Blues as ZUPCO Fails to Cope’, Newsday, May 5, 2020, https://www.newsday.co.zw/2020/05/commuters-sing-transport-blues-as-zupco-fails-to-cope/ (accessed January 21, 2022).

64 Ibid.

65 Tshuma, ‘Transport Blues as Zupco Fails To Cope With Demand.’

66 Ndlovu and Mhlanga, ‘Commuters Sing Transport Blues as ZUPCO Fails to Cope.’

67 Shorai Murwira, ‘Rain Season a Blow for ZUPCO Passengers as Buses Leak’, 263Chat.com, November 12, 2021, https://www.263chat.com/rain-season-a-blow-for-zupco-passengers-as-buses-leak/ (accessed March 2, 2022).

68 Moyo, ‘Zimbabwe’s Banned ‘Kombi’ Operators Turn Vehicles to Mobile Stores.’

69 See, for example, Community Podium, ‘ZUPCO Monopoly Challenged’, Kubatana.net, August 21, 2021, https://kubatana.net/2021/08/21/zupco-monopoly-challenged/ (accessed March 20, 2022); Makaripe, ‘Urban Transport Woes a Man-Made Problem’; Moyo, ‘Zimbabwe’s Banned ‘Kombi’ Operators Turn Vehicles to Mobile Stores’; Nqobani Ndlovu and Rejoice Ncube, ‘Govt Must Admit ZUPCO Failure’, Newsday, April 29, 2021, https://www.newsday.co.zw/2021/04/govt-must-admit-zupco-failure/ (accessed February 20, 2022); Praisemore Sithole, ‘ZUPCO Buses Covid-19 Super Spreaders’, Newsday, July 21, 2021, https://www.newsday.co.zw/2021/07/zupco-buses-covid-19-super-spreaders/ (accessed January 3, 2022); Tshuma, ‘Transport Blues as Zupco Fails to Cope With Demand’; Tapiwa Zvaraya, ‘Public Transport Shortages Putting Many at Risk’, Gender Links Zimbabwe, September 4, 2020, https://genderlinks.org.za/news/public-transport-shortages-putting-many-at-risk/ (accessed June 20, 2022).

70 Community Podium, ‘ZUPCO Monopoly Challenged.’

71 Tshuma, ‘Transport Blues as Zupco Fails to Cope With Demand.’

72 Sithole, ‘ZUPCO Buses Covid-19 Super Spreaders.’

73 Makombe, ‘Between a Rock and a Hard Place’, 289.

74 Blessing Masakadza, ‘Mushika-shika, a Necessary Evil?’ Daily News, June 7, 2021, https://dailynews.co.zw/mushika-shika-a-necessary-evil/ (accessed March 20, 2022).

75 Ivan Zhakata, ‘Stern Warning for Non-ZUPCO Kombis’, The Herald, March 17, 2021, https://www.herald.co.zw/stern-warning-for-non-zupco-kombis/ (accessed January 28, 2022).

76 Chigwenya and Dube, ‘Informality and the Right to the City Centre’, 15; Masakadza, ‘Mushika-shika, a necessary evil?’

77 Bhoroma, ‘ZUPCO Monopoly Unhealthy for Public Transport.’

78 Mabika and Manomano, ‘Banned Kombis Devise New Ways of Operation’; Masakadza, ‘Mushika-shika, a necessary evil?’

79 Masakadza, ‘Mushika-shika, a Necessary Evil?’; Ndlovu and Ncube, ‘Govt must admit ZUPCO failure.’

80 Masakadza, ‘Mushika-shika, a Necessary Evil?’

81 Mabika and Manomano, ‘Banned Kombis Devise New Ways of Operation.’

82 United Nations, Road Safety Performance Review: Zimbabwe, 4.

83 Ibid., x.

84 Staff Reporter, ‘150 000 Kombi Workers Lose Jobs’, The Zimbabwe Mail, April 5, 2021, https://www.thezimbabwemail.com/business/150-000-kombi-workers-lose-jobs/ (accessed January 12, 2022).

85 Agbiboa, ‘How Informal Transport Systems Drive African Cities’, 178.

86 Jamie Hitchen, ‘Informal Transport Versus the State’, n.d., https://gga.org/informal-transport-versus-the-state/ (accessed February 15, 2022).

87 Wirth, ‘Transportation Policy in Mexico City’.

88 World Bank, ‘Douala Urban Mobility Project.’ World Bank (P167795), September 13, 2018, http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/793461558540522213/pdf/Concept-Project-Information-Document-Integrated-Safeguards-Data-Sheet-Douala-Urban-Mobility-Project-P167795.pdf/ (accessed January 7, 2022).

89 Verma and Ramanayya, Public Transport Planning and Management in Developing Countries, 1.

90 Agbiboa, ‘How Informal Transport Systems Drive African cities’; Cervero and Golub, ‘Informal Transport’; Verma and Ramanayya, Public Transport Planning and Management in Developing Countries.

91 United Nations Human Settlements Programme [UN-Habitat], Planning and Design for Sustainable Urban Mobility, 6–7.

92 Agbiboa, ‘How Informal Transport Systems Drive African Cities’, 175.

93 Manwaring and Wani, ‘Informal Transport Reform in Kampala’, 6.

94 Mabika and Manomano, ‘Banned Kombis Devise New Ways of Operation’; Masakadza, ‘Mushika-shika, a Necessary Evil?’; Zhakata, ‘Stern Warning for Non-ZUPCO Kombis.’

95 Dzenga, ‘Kombis Granted Nod to Operate, But … ’.

96 Bhoroma, ‘ZUPCO Monopoly Unhealthy for Public Transport’.

97 Staff Reporter, ‘150 000 Kombi Workers Lose Jobs’.

98 Moyo, ‘Zimbabwe’s Banned ‘Kombi’ Operators Turn Vehicles to Mobile Stores.’

99 Gwilliam, ‘Competition in Urban Passenger Transport in the Developing World’, 116.

100 Chigwenya and Dube, ‘Informality and the Right to the City Centre’, 15.

101 Hitchen, ‘Informal Transport Versus the State’.

102 See Chirisa, ‘Touts and the Control of Facilities in Bleeding Harare’.

103 Agbiboa, ‘How Informal Transport Systems Drive African Cities’, 181.

104 Schalekamp, ‘Lessons from Building Paratransit Operators’.

105 Plano, ‘Improving Paratransit Service’, 156.

106 Ibid., 157.

107 Ibid.

108 Ibid., 160–3.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Washington Mazorodze

Washington Mazorodze, holds a PhD in Public Administration (Peace Studies) (Durban University of Technology, 2021) and is currently a lecturer in the Department of Peace Security and Society, Faculty of Arts and Humanities at the University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe. His main research focus areas include peace and conflict studies, human security, politics and international relations.

Enock Ndawana

Enock Ndawana, received his PhD in Political Studies from the University of Johannesburg, South Africa in May 2022. He is a Visiting Research Fellow, Department of Politics and International Relations, Faculty of Humanities, University of Johannesburg, and temporary full-time lecturer, Department of Peace Security and Society, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe. His research interests include: African security, human security, gender and conflict, conflict resolution and transformation, and aspects of disaster risk reduction and management.