Heritage for identity and as diplomacy: the case of Korean martial arts

ABSTRACT

In the context of the legitimacy battle between the two Koreas, a tension exists between utilising cultural heritage to serve the interests of the two respective national-identity projects, and, at times, negotiating it to express the single Korean nation. The theoretical framework we adopt to explore this condition relies on two ideas: heritage as a building block of national identity and ‘heritage diplomacy’. By analysing the interplay between the place of martial arts in constructing identities and their ‘heritage as diplomacy’ practice, we make three contributions: we offer a hitherto unexplored angle on Korean identity-formation processes and inter-Korean relations; we introduce a unique case study pertaining to the involvement of non-Western states in heritage diplomacy; and, we contribute to the scant literature on intangible heritage in heritage diplomacy. More than a sports-diplomacy tool, the case of martial arts reveals the seemingly paradoxical nature of inter-Korean cultural heritage politics: the struggle to reinforce separate Korean national identities by resorting to the same heritage concomitantly contributes, in several ways, to the idea and sense of Korean ‘oneness’. The paper also maintains that such inter-Korean collaborations are advantageous in the growing competition among Asian nations for UNESCO’s recognition of cultural heritage.

KEYWORDS:

• Heritage diplomacy
• martial arts
• North Korea
• South Korea
• intangible heritage

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. It is beyond the scope of the paper to discuss more martial arts, archery for example, that deserve attention in this context. At this stage we chose to focus on said interconnected themes and, obviously, on the first, and still the only, martial art registered jointly with UNESCO.

2. The ITF was established in 1966 in South Korea. After the founder, Choi Hong-hi, had left the country in the early 1970s due to political disagreements with the government, South Korea disengaged from this body and, instead, founded World Taekwondo Federation in 1973.

3. Although Iran had Pahlevani and Zoorkhanei rituals registered in 2010, they represent a collection of gymnastic and callisthenic exercises with the use of equipment symbolizing ancient weapons, rather than a martial art per se.

4. Devastating Japanese invasions to Korea were carried out between 1592 and 1598. To date, the event remains one more Korean painful memory associated with the complicated relationship with Japan, but, at the same time, one more inspiring demonstration of Korean spirit of resistance.

5. Yi Min-gyu is a pseudonym of a former North Korean taekwondo official who prefers to remain anonymous.

6. It should be noted that there are shades within the two camps, and sometimes the differences between them are more nuanced (see Chae and Kim 2008; Lankov 2017).

7. To be sure, taekwondo exchanges took place under conservative governments as well, some of which were highly important. However, due to the unfavourable political environment they were few in number.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Eugenia Rozenfeld (Lachina)

Eugenia Rozenfeld (Lachina) earned her PhD in Asian Studies from the University of Haifa in 2021. Her research interests include East Asian martial arts and popular culture, as well as cultural and sports diplomacy. Her articles have been published in journals such as The International Journal of the History of Sport, Asian Studies Review and a number of peer-reviewed Russian journals, including Far Eastern Affairs and The Russian Herald of Korean Studies. Currently she teaches at Tel Aviv University and the University of Haifa

Guy Podoler

Guy Podoler is Senior Lecturer of Korean Studies at the Department of Asian Studies of the University of Haifa. His research interests include memory and commemoration, sports heritage, sports nationalism, and cultural diplomacy. His publications appeared in journals such as Acta Koreana, Asian Studies Review, International Journal of Cultural Policy, International Journal of the History of Sport, Sport in Society, and International Journal of Heritage Studies, and he contributed papers to edited volumes. His book is titled Monuments, Memory, and Identity: Constructing the Colonial Past in South Korea (Peter Lang AG, 2011), and he is senior book review editor for Asian Journal of Sport History and Culture.