Men and women at work in Canada, 1991–2016

ABSTRACT

Women’s increased labour force participation in Canada is a well-known trend over the past 40 years, and there is a perception that the gendered division of workplaces has decreased over time. This study aimed to describe the distribution of labour by sex/gender across occupations in the Canadian workforce and to examine changes in this distribution since 1991. We also provide key avenues of inquiry for future research into why occupations are segregated and what we can do about it. Data were obtained from the last six Canadian Censuses of Population (1991–2016). Descriptive statistics were prepared to examine labour force composition within various resolutions of the National Occupational Classification (NOC) codes by sex. GEE Poisson regression models were used to generate time- and occupation-adjusted estimates for incidence rate ratios with corresponding 95% confidence intervals for sex/gender differences in worker population growth. Over 40% of broad occupational categories were highly divided; three-quarters were mainly composed of men. For the most precise classifications, 58% of occupations were highly divided (78% mainly composed of men). Our inquiry into the forces driving sex-segregated jobs found that systems of gender essentialism, organisational hierarchies that favour men, and labour markets that are change-resistant are our future challenges.

Abbreviations NOC: National Occupational Classification; NOC-S: National Occupational Classification for Statistics; ATV: all-terrain vehicle; GEE: generalised estimating equation; IRR: incidence rate ratio; CI: confidence interval; STEM: science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

KEYWORDS:

• Division of labour
• occupation
• occupational exposures
• social determinants of health
• sex
• gender

Disclosure statement

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are publicly available from Statistics Canada, at [https://www.statcan.gc.ca/]. These data were derived from the following resources available in the public domain: [https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/datasets/index-eng.cfm].

Authors’ contributions

CP designed the aims and scope of the research as well as initiated insight for the acquisition of data. Statistical analysis and interpretation of Canada Census of Population data from 1991 to 2016 was completed by AH. EQ, AH, PS, ER, and MK interpreted and summarised the findings of the research in the manuscript that was reviewed and revised by CP. CP has agreed to be accountable for the accuracy and integrity of the research presented in this article.

Notes

1. In this paper, we will refer to women and men with the premise that these terms encompass some aspects of both sex and gender, especially when captured only in one question on a census. If specifically addressing physiological differences, we will refer to male or female workers. We will also refer to sex/gender together, given the interconnected nature of the concepts in occupational settings.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Emma K. Quinn

Ms. Emma Quinn is an undergraduate student at the University of Northern British Columbia in the School of Health Sciences. She is pursuing a degree in Community and Population Health: Environmental Health and is a volunteer at the Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Research department of Alberta Health Services in Calgary, Alberta.

Andrew Harper

Mr. Andrew Harper is a statistical research associate in the Department of Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Research (Alberta Health Services).

Ela Rydz

Ms. Ela Rydz is a senior research associate at CAREX Canada. Her research focuses on assessing exposure to occupational carcinogens in Canada.

Peter M Smith

Dr. Peter Smith is a co-scientific director and a senior scientist at the Institute for Work & Health in Toronto, and an associate professor in the Dalla Lana School of Public Health (University of Toronto) and the School of Population Health and Preventive Medicine (Monash University, Australia). His research focuses on work injury and its consequences in a changing labour market.

Mieke W Koehoorn

Dr. Mieke Koehoorn is a Professor in the Occupational and Environmental Health Division of the School of Population and Public Health (University of British Columbia) and the co-director of the Partnership for Work, Health and Safety. Her work focuses on the epidemiology of work related injury/illness, the determinants of work disability, and the evaluation of workers’ compensation policies and programs.

Cheryl E. Peters

Dr. Cheryl Peters is a research scientist in the Department of Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Research (Alberta Health Services), adjunct assistant professor in the Community Health Sciences and Oncology department (University of Calgary), and co-principal investigator of CAREX Canada. Her research focuses on the impact of carcinogenic exposures occurring in workplace and community and environments.