Special Education in Syria: Challenges and Recommendations, a Descriptive Study

ABSTRACT

Over the past three decades, various efforts have been made to develop special education policies and services in Syria. However, to guarantee the improvement of special education services and to develop sustainable national enhancements during both the emergency and reconstruction phases of the Syrian Civil War, it is necessary to continue to address the intersectional ways by which people with disabilities have been disproportionately impacted. This paper provides an update on disability and special education in Syria, including a brief account of the historical development of, impact of the civil war on, and major current challenges for the field of special education. These challenges include, but are not limited to, inadequate financial resources, a scarcity of integration programs, negative social attitudes because of a lack of knowledge, limited accessibility to services, and barriers to appropriate disability programmes. Recommendations for action are also offered. Further, we provide suggestions to improve special-education services for people with disabilities in Syria, as well as to develop sustainable national improvements for them.

KEYWORDS:

• Syria
• people with disabilities
• Syrian Civil War
• special education
• Arab countries
• Middle East

Introduction

The World Health Organization (WHO, 2020) estimates that 15% of the world’s population (i.e. over one billion people) experience some form of disability, and that disability prevalence is higher in developing countries. According to the Global Burden of Disease (2020), p. 5% (i.e. 95 million) of the global population of children (i.e. those aged 0–14 years) have disabilities, and these numbers may be even higher among displaced persons who have fled civil conflict, war, or natural disasters. However, data for the Middle East, and particularly Syria, are limited (Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015).

Disabilities are extremely diverse; while some disability-related health conditions result in poor health (e.g. diabetes) and special needs, others do not (e.g. learning disabilities). Article 25 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities reinforces the rights of people with disabilities (PWDs) to attain the highest standards of health care without discrimination (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Disability, 2008). However, few countries provide adequate quality services for PWDs (World Health Organization, 2020).

Special education in Arab societies has improved over the past 30 years and, with the disability rights movement (e.g. national special education laws, university programmes), persons with disabilities have become more accepted within their respective communities (Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015). Despite these improvements, however, service challenges and problems persist (Al Thani, 2006; Ashencaen Crabtree & Williams, 2013; Weber, 2012). Furthermore, no common strategy exists for special education in Arab countries; each country has endorsed its own methodology, from segregation to varying levels of inclusion (Weber, 2012). Al-Krenawi et al. (2004, p. 103) underlined the diversity among Arab societies as follows: ‘Arab societies are highly diverse and consist of heterogeneous systems of social differentiation based on ethnic, linguistic, sectarian, familial, tribal, regional, socioeconomic, and national identities’.

The International Rescue Committee (2018) reported that 84% of Syrian children with disabilities are not attending school, and that four out of five are not receiving vital education that has the potential to transform their lives. This sobering statistic indicates that children with disabilities in Syria are being left behind and consequently experiencing adverse socioeconomic outcomes such as lower education, poorer health outcomes, and higher poverty rates than peers who do not have disabilities.

The Syrian Civil War has been ongoing since 2011, and the situation remains volatile. Recently, however, reconstruction attempts have been initiated in the country, which suggests that the security situation in the country will improve in the near future. However, among the interventions being implemented, there is a general absence of horizontal and inclusive policies and actions; this highlights the need to develop actions that specifically target PWDs, as well as to foster close collaboration among agencies to increase the inclusion of PWDs. The purpose of the present article is to (a) provide an overview of the reality of special-education services for PWDs in Syria, and (b) explain the current challenges regarding the implementation of such services and provide recommendations for action. The overview presented in this article is based on a combination of the first author’s perspectives and data from relevant Arabic literature.

The Syrian Education System

Basic and Secondary Education System

Syria has a 12-year basic and secondary education system (BSES). Basic education spans nine years (grades 1–9), and is divided into two cycles (grades 1–4 and grades 5–9, respectively); meanwhile, secondary education spans three years (grades 10–12). Secondary education in general secondary schools and technical/vocational schools is offered free of charge (i.e. through government funding; Syrian Ministry of Education, 2021a). In 2014, there were approximately 2.5 million and 2.9 million students in Syria enrolled in basic and secondary education, respectively (World Education Services, 2016). Prior to the conflict, basic education enrolment was close to 93% in 2008 (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF], 2019); however, by 2015, an estimated two million Syrian children were out of school, and approximately 5,000 schools had either been destroyed or damaged by the war (UNICEF, 2019).

At BSES level, the academic year runs from September to June. The curricula and learning materials for BSES levels, including those used in private schools, are directly under the supervision of the Syrian Ministry of Education, which is also responsible for developing, implementing, and evaluating education policy, laws, and regulations. According to the World Education Services (2016), the Syrian Ministry of Education oversees education policy based on the ruling party’s resolutions and regulations. The Syrian Ministry of Education also provides licenced teachers with continuing education to help them improve their competencies and performance. Ninety-seven percent of basic education schools in Syria are public, while only 3% are private; meanwhile, 94% of secondary schools are public and 6% are private (Syrian Ministry of Education, 2021b).

In addition, kindergartens are usually available, on a fee-paying basis, for children aged three to five years. However, enrolment in kindergarten is not obligatory. Most pre-primary education schools are privately owned and operated. The Syrian Ministry of Education (2021b) has developed policies to help increase pre-primary education offerings, thereby encouraging grassroots organisations to establish further schools.

Higher Education System

The Syrian government authorised the privatisation of higher education in 2001. There are currently 20 private and seven public universities in Syria supervised by the Syrian Ministry of Higher Education (2021a). Syria offers 2–6-year programmes, depending on the course of study (e.g. six years at university for a general doctor and two years for doctors’ assistants), which are completed in technical/intermediate institutes, public universities, private universities, or higher institutes. Most of these institutes offer bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees. Public higher education is free and subsidised by the Syrian government; however, students who graduated with low secondary school scores may need to pay fees to access certain higher education programmes (Syrian Ministry of Higher Education, 2021b). Private institutions do not receive government financial support. Arabic is the official language in higher education programmes; however, other languages (e.g. French and English) are available in some programmes.

Brief Overview of the History of Special Education in Syria

In Arab societies, PWDs have been historically stigmatised as burdensome and embarrassing (Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015). These attitudes have impacted the lives of parents caring for children with disabilities and prohibited such children from accessing special education services. It is common for families in Syrian society to be ashamed to acknowledge that their child has a disability. As a result, many of these families choose not to bring their children to public places, and instead keep them at home; this means that these children are prevented from receiving special education or related services (Mounzer & Al Khateeb, 2009). However, some researchers have reported that Arab societies have recently shown improved perceptions of disability and special education (Ashencaen Crabtree & Williams, 2013; Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015).

Services for PWDs in Arab societies first emerged in the 1960s through public institutions (Mahmoud, 2017). The first of these centres or institutions were established for individuals with intellectual disabilities, hearing impairments, visual impairments, or physical disabilities. Initially, the government provided in-service training for unspecialised teachers who were working in these special-education institutions and centres. Later, members of the private and volunteer sectors established further centres (Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015). Special-education programmes and services for PWDs have generally been funded through altruistic and charitable works (Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015); this may explain why special education services in Syria remain under the authorisation of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour (MSAL) instead of the Syrian Ministry of Education.

In the 1980s, teacher training for special education was advanced when Damascus University created a one-year diploma in special education (Damascus University, 2021). Then, with the release of the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education 1994 (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation [UNESCO], 2020), Syria began revising its educational policies to promote special education in mainstream schools. In 2006, Syria ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Individuals with Disabilities, which encourages, among other things, ensuring inclusivity at all levels of the education system. However, despite the adjustments made in order to adopt the main principles of the Convention, the extent to which the number of PWDs in regular schools in Syria increased remains unknown.

In the 2000s, students with other disabilities (e.g. speech and language disorders, learning disabilities, autism, and behaviour disorders) were provided with services; however, the quality of these services may have varied. In 2009, in order to meet society’s growing need for human resources with scientific competence, the Higher Education Council created the Department of Special Education at Damascus University; this department offers bachelor’s, master’s, and doctorate degrees in special education (Damascus University, 2021).

From 2005 to 2011, prior to the onset of the 2011 civil war, government and non-government organisations (NGOs) in Syria rapidly extended their efforts to protect the human rights of PWDs. In addition, the number of national special-education laws, university collaboration programmes for special education, media awareness programmes concerning PWDs, psychoeducational assessment tools, and conferences on special education grew exponentially, as did the degree of research on this topic. However, to the best of our knowledge, no data are available documenting the number of PWDs or the number of children with disabilities who were educated or served by such programmes before the civil war. Nevertheless, the High Commissioner for Human Rights (2013) reported that the MSAL constructed 31 centres for PWDs, including individuals with visual impairments, hearing impairments, and/or cerebral palsy. The High Commissioner also indicated that in 2013, there were 65 NGOs in operation in Syria providing services to children with disabilities. These services ranged from inclusion support in regular schools to support in special schools or private clinics, and included speech therapy, occupational therapy, behavioural therapy, physical therapy, parent training, health and medical services, private speech sessions at home, private teaching sessions, private clinics in hospitals, family counselling, and vocational rehabilitation. However, there remains a paucity of services for children with disabilities in Syria; thus, there is a vital need to increase awareness regarding the number of children with disabilities in Syria and their need for appropriate services (Thompson, 2017).

Disability by Age and Sex in Syria

The Humanitarian Needs Assessment Program (2019) reported that 15% of children aged 12–19 years have disabilities; however, this figure may be disproportionately low because, at the time of the survey, some men may have been engaged in military actions or may have migrated. Further, this report did not include persons under the age of 12, thereby omitting almost one-third of the population. UNICEF (2018) reported that over 3.3 million children in Syria have been exposed to explosive hazards that can cause serious injury, loss of limbs, or death. While males are only slightly more likely than females to have a disability (28% vs. 25%, respectively), the intersectional vulnerabilities of individuals, coupled with the impact on their expected household contributions, have distinct implications for affected individuals and their households (UNICEF, 2018).

Children with Special Needs in Syria during the Civil War

After 10 years of conflict, the Syrian Civil War continues to have a large impact on children living in Syria. Countless Syrian children have been affected by violence, displacement, loss of or separation from family members, and lack of access to vital services. For example, the United Nations estimates that 11 million people in Syria require humanitarian assistance, including 4.7 million children and 1.3 million PWDs (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund, 2019). Meanwhile, Syria Relief (2018) has reported that there are over 10,000 children with special needs in Syria living without access to fundamental services. ‘The most prevalent difficulties identified by the children surveyed (N= 789) were 55% had mobility difficulties, 46% had intellectual difficulties, 48% had psychological and/or intellectual difficulties (N= 380), [and] 21% had a combination of mobility, intellectual, and/or psychological difficulties’ (Syria Relief, 2018, p. 1). The authors also found that 88% of all children surveyed showed a need for medical rehabilitation services, with 68% indicating that these services were not available in their area. Meanwhile, 79% of all children surveyed indicated a need for accessible health-care services, with 61% indicating that these services were not available in their area. Finally, 64% of all children surveyed indicated a need for educational services, with 81% lacking access to these services in their areas (Syria Relief, 2018). UNICEF (2019) also reported that over half of the school-aged population in the northwest region of Syria (300,000 children) is at risk of not receiving educational services. According to Saif (2013), the Arab Spring movement, for which better living conditions was a core aim, has thus far negatively impacted regional economies in Syria. When taking population growth into account, the postulated economic growth will be negligible, further contributing to a deterioration in standards of living (Saif, 2013).

Current Challenges and Suggested Actions

WHO summarised the challenges faced by Arab societies regarding disability and special education as follows:

The Arab region faces several challenges around disability, such as the variation in the definition of disability from one country to another, the lack of data and information on the different aspects of disability, domination of the concept of ‘care’ in addressing the issue over the philosophy of inclusion, the discrepancy between the current level of political commitment with the magnitude of disability and the declared commitments; the gap in understanding how commitments are translated into action; the fragmentation of existing efforts and insufficient or ineffective coordination mechanisms within and between the concerned sectors. (WHO, 2012, p. 4)

Almasri, Tahat, Skaf, and Masri (2019) reported that the civil war has impacted children’s education through four main factors: (a) insecurity, (b) instability, (c) lack of resources, and (d) lack of adult supervision. These impacts are exacerbated by limited access to essential services. Almasri et al.’s (2019) report further mentioned that children who are vulnerable to violence face a heightened risk of exploitation, abuse and neglect, social stigma, and exclusion (due to disability and/or separation from caregivers). Such social restraints, particularly when combined with physical restraints related to disabilities, can limit children’s individual interactions. Meanwhile, irregular access to special services can concurrently undermine care provision.

While the crisis in Syria has affected the whole country to varying degrees, some parts of the population and locations have been more severely affected than others (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs [OCHA], 2021). More recently, the accelerating economic deterioration has become another additional key driver of needs, compounding vulnerabilities even further. Today, 14.6 million people in Syria need humanitarian assistance (OCHA, 2022). The locations most affected are governorates in the north-west and north-east. The refugee crisis has led to the largest number of internally displaced people in the world, with over 5.6 million registered refugees and over 6 million people internally displaced (UNHCR & UNDP, 2019). One of the most pressing concerns is the lack of technical staff required to deliver and maintain basic health services, as a consequence of displacement, death, or impairment, and a lack of technical training. Half of Syria’s subdistricts are at emergency levels because of the lack of healthcare workers alone (OCHA, 2022).

Children with special educational needs and disabilities face additional social and educational challenges during their school years, and are, therefore, likely to have been particularly heavily impacted by the coronavirus disease 2019 Pandemic (O’Connor Bones, Bates, Finlay, Roulston, & Taggart, 2020). The civil war also resulted in the creation of environmental barriers (e.g. destruction of infrastructure and personnel resources) that prevent PWDs from performing daily activities and fully participating in society. Accordingly, policy interventions should focus on resolving these barriers to facilitate the participation and integration of PWDs in society.

In the following section, the major challenges (excluding the effects of the civil war) currently faced by Syria regarding providing services for PWDs are presented. This section is based mostly on the authors’ perspectives and reviews of Arabic literature.

Special Education Databases

The first challenge to the progress of special education in Syria is the absence of reliable data and valid statistics on disabilities, which has created massive difficulties regarding policy development and research improvement (Sara, 2009). UNESCO (2020) has reported a global lack of quality data on individuals excluded from education; however, the Arab region is by far the worst in this regard. WHO reported that, in all Arab countries, there is a dearth of registry data, and that documentation and data maintenance inadequacy are common (World Health Organization, 2012). Similarly, Al Thani (2006) indicated that writing about special education in the Arab region is a complicated task because of the lack of resources (e.g. accurate and updated statistics, indexed publications, and variability in terms and definitions). In a report on disability in Arab countries, the United Nations Enable (2013) emphasised the importance of improving disability-related data, information, and statistics in the Arab region. Therefore, organised collections of structured information or data, typically stored electronically on a computer system, are needed. The data can then be easily accessed, managed, modified, updated, controlled, and organised.

Additional research found eight organisations that support or deliver services to children in Syria (Syria Relief, 2018). However, only four of these organisations have offices inside Syria: Syria Relief, Syria Relief and Development, Handicap International, and International Medical Corps. Many of the larger NGOs support smaller local NGOs with offices in Syria as implementing partners. However, these NGOs have insufficient reach to support many of the children identified as living with disabilities in Syria. There is a vital need to collect disability-related data, and increase awareness regarding the scale of children with disabilities in Syria and the services they need.

Training of Special Education Teachers in Syria

Damascus University in Syria has offered bachelor’s and postgraduate programmes in special education since 2009 (Damascus University, 2021). Currently, there are five professional preparation programmes for public teachers. With regard to university level, the Special Education Department offers a four-year education program (214 credit hours), divided across eight semesters, aimed at appropriately training special education teachers to teach students with special needs. The curriculum comprises modules on disabilities (e.g. visual and hearing impairments, motor disability, intellectual disability, autism, and language disorders) and educational strategies, and provides instruction on how to develop individual education programmes, conduct educational and behavioural evaluations, provide behavioural support, perform early interventions, and provide parental counselling. Additionally, students study courses related to psychology, statistics, the Arabic language, the English language, and computer skills. From the third year of the course, over six hours practical training is provided in each semester (Damascus University, 2021).

According to UNESCO (2021), the Syrian Ministry of Education continues its efforts in training teachers and managing trainer programmes in areas such as learning difficulties, behavioural issues, and inclusion of students with disability. In 2019, it recruited more than 100 trainers who specialise in these areas. Recently, there is a wealth of information being collected in Syria, both inside and outside the government-controlled areas. However, the education system is deteriorating and the number of dropouts is escalating. In addition to the limited funding available for education projects, political agendas, security, and safety play a major role (Al-Samarai, 2021). Data are being collected at ministerial level, including data on limited and ad hoc education in emergencies, in addition to the data being gathered by various humanitarian and development actors.

Special Education Laws and Policies

Several researchers in Arab countries have reported a chasm between declared policies regarding special education and the implementation of these policies (e.g. Abu Alghaib, 2012; Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015). For example, the majority of children with disabilities receive special education services in isolated environments (Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015) but, despite the regulations adopted to promote and protect their rights, may also be subjected to discrimination such as segregated settings (Abu Alghaib, 2012).

Syria has neither acceded to nor accepted or ratified the UN Convention Against Discrimination in Education, but it ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1993. Syria’s current laws and policies encourage the implementation of measures to protect the rights of PWDs. According to Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic (2012), under Compulsory Education Act No. 7 of 2012, parents or guardians are required to send their children to school and are liable under the law if they fail to do so. Article 29(1) states that ‘education shall be a right guaranteed by the state, and it is free at all levels’. The law ‘shall regulate the cases where education could not be free at universities and government institutes’. Article 29(2) states that ‘education shall be compulsory until the end of basic education stage, and the state shall work on extending compulsory education to other stages’. Under the Constitution, all citizens are equal, there is no discrimination on the basis of gender, origin, language, religion, or belief, and the state guarantees equality of opportunity among citizens (Art. 33[3]). However, legislation and procedures are often not enforced (Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015). In addition, Syrian committees with the responsibility for these laws and procedures rarely monitor their implementation; such efforts have been especially restricted during the civil war. Syria, like many Arab countries, has many clauses regarding disability laws, and special education in general (Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015). However, these clauses do not clearly specify the types of measures to be used, nor do they specify the practical mechanisms for the application of the associated laws. These unclear definitions lead to diverse interpretations, inadequate follow-up, and a lack of accountability mechanisms. Therefore, to make tangible improvements to PWDs’ lives, clear definitions of these laws and regulations and strict accountability measures are urgently required.

Inclusive Education

Implementing integration policies is one of the most important challenges to be addressed in order to make public services more inclusive and accessible for PWDs (Abu Alghaib, 2012). However, across the Arab world, there are incompatible and multifaceted interpretations regarding definitions of ‘inclusion’ and ‘inclusive’ education, which means the implementation of education based on these terms is complex (Elhoweris & Efthymiou, 2021). Arab countries tend to adopt special education models used in developed countries, such as the United States (Weber, 2012); however, according to Weber (2012), in Arab countries, including Syria, inclusion is still in its early stages or is intermittently available. Although in recent years there has been a growing trend in many countries in the region (e.g. Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar) towards the adoption of regulations and policies to facilitate PWDs’ access to educational services, additional efforts are needed (Al Thani, 2006; Gharaibeh, 2009). For example, PWDs’ lack of physical access to educational institutions remains a major challenge, and Syrian schools generally remain inadequately prepared for accommodating PWDs (Al-Halabi, 2011; Al Thani, 2006; Wehbi, 2006; some public schools have some resource rooms or private classes; however, these rooms are not used in the most optimal manner). The Humanitarian Needs Assessment Programme (2020) reported that Syria has limited institutional capacity for PWDs, Syrian households with PWDs are more likely to isolate themselves, and PWDs in Syria have low school attendance rates. Alkhateeb, Hadidi, and Alkhateeb (2016) conducted a systematic review of integration-focussed research from Arab countries (over two-thirds of the studies analysed were from Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates). The systematic review focussed on three main topics: (a) attitudes towards integration, (b) results of inclusion programmes, and (c) barriers and challenges to inclusion. All of the studies reviewed were survey studies; none were experimental. The analysis of studies examining attitudes towards integration found that teachers’ attitudes have occasionally been conflicting. Secondly, most studies examining the results of integration reported better academic and social development among children with disabilities who attended mainstream schools, and that parents and children were generally satisfied with the integration experience. Finally, studies on challenges indicated that integration is associated with several challenges among teachers, such as limited training, a lack of qualified practitioners, and inadequate support. In addition, difficulties among children with disabilities concerned a lack of access to schools, overcrowded classrooms, a lack of educational materials and supporting devices, rigorous and inflexible curricula, inadequate learning environments, and poor support from school principals (Al Khateeb et al., 2016).

Further, Syria has no national mechanism for education monitoring. It is unclear from the existing laws and documents what types of monitoring and reporting mechanisms might be in place regarding inclusive education in Syria (UNESCO, 2021). A recent study on the satisfaction of families of children with disabilities in Syria (Mounzer & Stenhoff, 2021) showed that many parents of children in inclusive classes were dissatisfied. This underscores the need to adopt an integration policy, even if this is a challenging task, to make public services more inclusive and easier to access for PWDs. In Syria, barriers to inclusion make it more likely that PWDs will experience adverse social, psychological, and economic outcomes. Thus, future Syria-based research should aim to appropriately identify the challenges to designing and implementing integration programmes, and should seek to inform integration-related policies.

Transition Services

Most Arab countries lack developed policies and systematic approaches to implement transition and transformation services for PWDs to meet their special needs and respond to their specific interests (Obaid, 2012). Generalised programmes that teach PWDs general skills and help them effectively transition to other environments have been recommended (Almuaqel, 2006; Hadidi & Alkhateeb, 2015). Althabet (2002) reported that special education teacher preparation programmes in Saudi Arabia lack courses related to transition services; however, to the extent of the authors’ knowledge, Syrian special education teacher training programmes are legislated to include transition-related courses. Nevertheless, the development of transition-services-related policies and the collaborative (i.e. between ministries) provision of such services is needed in Syria.

According to a report by The Assessment Capacities Project (ACAPS, 2020), the heightened instability across southern Syria has impacted the regions where basic services were already depleted, jobs are lacking, food and fuel prices are extremely high, and the presence of humanitarian actors is limited. Syria Relief (2018) conducted a survey among 789 children with disabilities living in the most affected areas across four governorates in Syria: Idleb City (Idleb); Sarmada (Idleb); Talbeeseh (Homs); Azaz (Alepoo); Lattakia Suburbs, Lattakia (Idleb); Al-Ghouta (Rural Damascus); Ain Beide; and Atmeh. The findings demonstrate that a large number of children with disabilities are living without access to some of the most basic necessities. Many of the children surveyed no longer had access to or had never received physical, mental, and psychological support services, including medical rehabilitation services; assistive devices (e.g. wheelchairs, shower seats); educational, counselling, and health care services; and mental stimulation.

Scientific Research on Disability and Special Education

In the United Nations Enable (2013) report, the authors encouraged Arab states to strengthen scientific research on disability. This report specifically emphasised the importance of governments, academic institutions, and other stakeholders allocating adequate financial and human resources to support scientific research on various aspects of disability in these countries. Some Arab countries have made progress in this area over the past two decades. For example, the Prince Salman Center for Disability Research in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, which was established in 1990, has shown significant achievements in early intervention, disability prevention, education, and public awareness programmes concerning children with learning disabilities, and has also made advances regarding the accessibility of such programmes. However, there is a marked lack of local involvement in disability research. Al Khateeb (2010) reviewed 216 studies that had been published over the past decade and that focussed on special education in Arabic countries. The results showed a gap between research and practice, meaning there is a low likelihood of research findings being applied in the field. Furthermore, many of these studies contained systematic errors that limited their usefulness and generalisability to other contexts. Similar limitations were noted in a review of 126 Syrian theses and dissertations concerning special education that were published between 2009–2021 at Damascus University. Although these theses and doctoral dissertations examined the effects of particular programmes and reported significant findings, their applicability was very poor.

Parental Involvement

Current special education laws and training programmes in Arab countries attribute little attention to the families and parents of children with disabilities. Mounzer (2013) confirmed that parents are vital to the team process which aids in the success of special education interventions (e.g. provide information on such children’s strengths and weaknesses at home, background information on these children’s history and development, and information on family factors that may affect the children’s learning). Despite parents’ participation in their children’s educational programmes, parents’ participation in special education is subject to the agreement and cooperation of teachers (Al-Shammari, 2000). A recent study on the satisfaction of families of children with disabilities in Syria showed that parents often feel that teachers do not welcome their contributions to their child’s individualised education programme, and that parents are dissatisfied with the safety precautions taken at schools; however, they also reported satisfaction with the services they received (Mounzer & Stenhoff, 2021). Similarly, Mounzer and Al-Khateeb (2009) reported, among parents of children with autism spectrum disorder, a high level of satisfaction with behavioural treatment services provided to their children.

Concerted efforts should be made to encourage parental participation in special-education programmes.

Early Intervention

In general, there is a clear lack of early intervention programmes for PWDs in Arab countries (Al-Hilawani, Koch, & Braaten, 2008; Bradshaw, 2009). The early intervention model ‘Portage’ was introduced in the Arab world in 1984 through its implementation in the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Portage materials have been translated into Arabic and, in the early 1990s, hundreds of home visitors in many Arab countries, including Syria, were trained (Abu Al-Haija, 2014). In Syria, early interventions with regard to special education for children aged between three and six years often begin in special education institutes. However, many of these centres lack clear policies or regulations concerning the provision of special pre-school education; this situation is exacerbated by the previously mentioned division of supervision responsibility between ministries. This is a fundamental challenge; children with disabilities and children under the age of three remain largely underserved.

Little progress has been made in Syria to develop the capacity of kindergartens and their staff, in terms of early identification and the creation of intervention services for young children with disabilities. In normal learning environments, when children are suspected of being different from their peers, the parents are often advised to have their children assessed by special education institutes. However, as a result of social and cultural factors, parents generally tend to wait and hope that their children will somehow overcome their difficulties; in particular, people in Syria may carry special ideologies and practices regarding the causes and treatments of disability (Eissa Saad & Borowska-Beszta, 2019). For example, some parents may believe that God sent a child with disabilities as a gift, while others may believe that the child was sent as a test or as a punishment for past sins. These ideologies may explain why Arab parents are more interested in medically oriented interventions than development-oriented interventions (Al Khateeb & Hadidi, 2010). In addition, there is also a considerable geographic disparity in data collection, particularly in the north-west and north-east of Syria due to the crisis and related issues of access and security (Al-Samarai, 2021). This results in fragmented data, which in turn makes it difficult to gather accurate and comprehensive information, thus affecting the ability to respond to education needs in certain areas.

Conclusions

In general, this paper provided a brief description of the state of current special education services provided to PWDs in Syria. In particular, it provided an analysis of the impact of the civil war on the field of special education in Syria, as well as the current challenges to providing special education services. These challenges include, but are not limited to, inadequate financial resources, a scarcity of integration programmes, negative social attitudes as a result of a lack of knowledge, limited accessibility to services, and barriers to appropriate disability programmes. Taken together, these factors hinder the inclusion of PWDs in education, and have negative effects on the quality of special education programmes and inclusive education. The main challenge is the gap created by the division of responsibility; special education institutes are supervised by the MSAL, while schools are under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. Other issues that require addressing concern the need for transitional services programmes and the development of scientific research platforms to maximise the benefit of related research in the field. In addition, disability research and support resources (e.g. funding) need to be improved by developing databases that allow for more accurate and systematic data collection.

We provided suggestions concerning the importance of implementing and upholding disability-related laws and procedures; improving disability programmes and services; improving the psychological and educational assessment of PWDs; overcoming deficiencies in disability programmes and services through, for example, training teachers in regular in-service education; and increasing allocations for disability programmes and services. The results of this review highlight the need for an inclusive education approach for PWDs in Syria. It is evident that, moving forward, the success of special education interventions in Syria depends on making inclusion a priority throughout all programmes across the emergency, early intervention, and reconstruction phases. Finally, to guarantee the improvement of special education services and develop sustainable national improvements, it is necessary to continue to address the intersectional methods by which PWDs have been disproportionately impacted.

Data availability

No restrictions are imposed on free access to, or publication of, the research data.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

No research funding was received for this study.